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\input texinfo   @c -*-texinfo-*-
@comment %**start of header (This is for running Texinfo on a region.)
@setfilename ipc.info
@settitle Inter Process Communication.
@setchapternewpage odd
@comment %**end of header (This is for running Texinfo on a region.)
   
@ifinfo
This file documents the System V style inter process communication
primitives available under linux.

Copyright @copyright{} 1992  krishna balasubramanian
    
Permission is granted to use this material and the accompanying
programs within the terms of the GNU GPL.
@end ifinfo
    
@titlepage
@sp 10
@center @titlefont{System V Inter Process Communication}
@sp 2
@center krishna balasubramanian,
    
@comment  The following two commands start the copyright page.
@page
@vskip 0pt plus 1filll
Copyright @copyright{} 1992  krishna balasubramanian
    
Permission is granted to use this material and the accompanying
programs within the terms of the GNU GPL.
@end titlepage

@dircategory Miscellaneous
@direntry
* ipc: (ipc).           System V style inter process communication
@end direntry

@node Top, Overview, Notes, (dir)
@chapter System V IPC.

These facilities are provided to maintain compatibility with
programs developed on system V unix systems and others
that rely on these system V mechanisms to accomplish inter
process communication (IPC).@refill

The specifics described here are applicable to the Linux implementation.
Other implementations may do things slightly differently.

@menu
* Overview::            What is system V ipc? Overall mechanisms.
* Messages::            System calls for message passing.
* Semaphores::          System calls for semaphores.
* Shared Memory::       System calls for shared memory access.
* Notes::               Miscellaneous notes.
@end menu

@node Overview, example, Top, Top
@section Overview

@noindent System V IPC consists of three mechanisms:

@itemize @bullet
@item 
Messages : exchange messages with any process or server.
@item 
Semaphores : allow unrelated processes to synchronize execution.
@item 
Shared memory : allow unrelated processes to share memory.
@end itemize

@menu
* example::     Using shared memory.
* perms::       Description of access permissions.
* syscalls::    Overview of ipc system calls.
@end menu

Access to all resources is permitted on the basis of permissions
set up when the resource was created.@refill

A resource here consists of message queue, a semaphore set (array)
or a shared memory segment.@refill

A resource must first be allocated by a creator before it is used.
The creator can assign a different owner. After use the resource
must be explicitly destroyed by the creator or owner.@refill

A resource is identified by a numeric @var{id}. Typically a creator
defines a @var{key} that may be used to access the resource. The user
process may then use this @var{key} in the @dfn{get} system call to obtain
the @var{id} for the corresponding resource. This @var{id} is then used for
all further access. A library call @dfn{ftok} is provided to translate
pathnames or strings to numeric keys.@refill

There are system and implementation defined limits on the number and
sizes of resources of any given type. Some of these are imposed by the
implementation and others by the system administrator
when configuring the kernel (@xref{msglimits}, @xref{semlimits},
@xref{shmlimits}).@refill

There is an @code{msqid_ds}, @code{semid_ds} or @code{shmid_ds} struct
associated with each message queue, semaphore array or shared segment.
Each ipc resource has an associated @code{ipc_perm} struct which defines
the creator, owner, access perms ..etc.., for the resource.
These structures are detailed in the following sections.@refill



@node example, perms, Overview, Overview
@section example

Here is a code fragment with pointers on how to use shared memory. The
same methods are applicable to other resources.@refill

In a typical access sequence the creator allocates a new instance
of the resource with the @code{get} system call using the IPC_CREAT
flag.@refill

@noindent creator process:@*

@example
#include <sys/shm.h>
int id;
key_t key;
char proc_id = 'C';     
int size = 0x5000;      /* 20 K */
int flags = 0664 | IPC_CREAT;           /* read-only for others */

key = ftok ("~creator/ipckey", proc_id);
id = shmget (key, size, flags);
exit (0);       /* quit leaving resource allocated */
@end example

@noindent
Users then gain access to the resource using the same key.@*
@noindent
Client process:
@example
#include <sys/shm.h>
char *shmaddr;
int id;
key_t key;
char proc_id = 'C';     

key = ftok ("~creator/ipckey", proc_id);

id = shmget (key, 0, 004);              /* default size   */
if (id == -1)
      perror ("shmget ...");
        
shmaddr = shmat (id, 0, SHM_RDONLY); /* attach segment for reading */
if (shmaddr == (char *) -1)
      perror ("shmat ...");     

local_var = *(shmaddr + 3);     /* read segment etc. */

shmdt (shmaddr);                /* detach segment */
@end example

@noindent
When the resource is no longer needed the creator should remove it.@*
@noindent
Creator/owner process 2:
@example
key = ftok ("~creator/ipckey", proc_id)
id = shmget (key, 0, 0);
shmctl (id, IPC_RMID, NULL);
@end example


@node perms, syscalls, example, Overview
@section Permissions

Each resource has an associated @code{ipc_perm} struct which defines the
creator, owner and access perms for the resource.@refill

@example
struct ipc_perm
        key_t key;    /* set by creator */
        ushort uid;   /* owner euid and egid */
        ushort gid;
        ushort cuid;  /* creator euid and egid */
        ushort cgid;
        ushort mode;  /* access modes in lower 9 bits */
        ushort seq;   /* sequence number */
@end example

The creating process is the default owner. The owner can be reassigned
by the creator and has creator perms. Only the owner, creator or super-user
can delete the resource.@refill

The lowest nine bits of the flags parameter supplied by the user to the
system call are compared with the values stored in @code{ipc_perms.mode}
to determine if the requested access is allowed. In the case
that the system call creates the resource, these bits are initialized
from the user supplied value.@refill

As for files, access permissions are specified as read, write and exec
for user, group or other (though the exec perms are unused). For example 
0624 grants read-write to owner, write-only to group and read-only
access to others.@refill

For shared memory, note that read-write access for segments is determined
by a separate flag which is not stored in the @code{mode} field.
Shared memory segments attached with write access can be read.@refill

The @code{cuid}, @code{cgid}, @code{key} and @code{seq} fields
cannot be changed by the user.@refill



@node syscalls, Messages, perms, Overview
@section IPC system calls

This section provides an overview of the IPC system calls. See the
specific sections on each type of resource for details.@refill

Each type of mechanism provides a @dfn{get}, @dfn{ctl} and one or more
@dfn{op} system calls that allow the user to create or procure the
resource (get), define its behaviour or destroy it (ctl) and manipulate
the resources (op).@refill
        


@subsection The @dfn{get} system calls

The @code{get} call typically takes a @var{key} and returns a numeric
@var{id} that is used for further access.
The @var{id} is an index into the resource table. A sequence
number is maintained and incremented when a resource is
destroyed so that access using an obsolete @var{id} is likely to fail.@refill

The user also specifies the permissions and other behaviour
charecteristics for the current access. The flags are or-ed with the
permissions when invoking system calls as in:@refill
@example
msgflg = IPC_CREAT | IPC_EXCL | 0666;
id = msgget (key, msgflg);
@end example
@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{key} : IPC_PRIVATE => new instance of resource is initialized.
@item
@code{flags} :
@itemize @asis
@item
IPC_CREAT : resource created for @var{key} if it does not exist.
@item
IPC_CREAT | IPC_EXCL : fail if resource exists for @var{key}.
@end itemize
@item
returns : an identifier used for all further access to the resource.
@end itemize

Note that IPC_PRIVATE is not a flag but a special @code{key}
that ensures (when the call is successful) that a new resource is
created.@refill

Use of IPC_PRIVATE does not make the resource inaccessible to other
users. For this you must set the access permissions appropriately.@refill

There is currently no way for a process to ensure exclusive access to a
resource. IPC_CREAT | IPC_EXCL only ensures (on success) that a new
resource was initialized. It does not imply exclusive access.@refill

@noindent
See Also : @xref{msgget}, @xref{semget}, @xref{shmget}.@refill



@subsection The @dfn{ctl} system calls

Provides or alters the information stored in the structure that describes
the resource indexed by @var{id}.@refill

@example
#include <sys/msg.h>
struct msqid_ds buf;
err = msgctl (id, IPC_STAT, &buf);
if (err)
        !$#%*
else
        printf ("creator uid = %d\n", buf.msg_perm.cuid);
        ....
@end example

@noindent
Commands supported by all @code{ctl} calls:@*
@itemize @bullet
@item
IPC_STAT : read info on resource  specified by id into user allocated
buffer. The user must have read access to the resource.@refill
@item
IPC_SET : write info from buffer into resource data structure. The
user must be owner creator or super-user.@refill
@item
IPC_RMID : remove resource. The user must be the owner, creator or
super-user.@refill
@end itemize

The IPC_RMID command results in immediate removal of a message
queue or semaphore array. Shared memory segments however, are
only destroyed upon the last detach after IPC_RMID is executed.@refill

The @code{semctl} call provides a number of command options that allow
the user to determine or set the values of the semaphores in an array.@refill

@noindent
See Also: @xref{msgctl}, @xref{semctl}, @xref{shmctl}.@refill


@subsection The @dfn{op} system calls

Used to send or receive messages, read or alter semaphore values,
attach or detach shared memory segments.
The IPC_NOWAIT flag will cause the operation to fail with error EAGAIN
if the process has to wait on the call.@refill

@noindent
@code{flags} : IPC_NOWAIT  => return with error if a wait is required.

@noindent
See Also: @xref{msgsnd},@xref{msgrcv},@xref{semop},@xref{shmat},
@xref{shmdt}.@refill



@node Messages, msgget, syscalls, Top
@section Messages

A message resource is described by a struct @code{msqid_ds} which is
allocated and initialized when the resource is created. Some fields
in @code{msqid_ds} can then be altered (if desired) by invoking @code{msgctl}.
The memory used by the resource is released when it is destroyed by
a @code{msgctl} call.@refill

@example
struct msqid_ds
    struct ipc_perm msg_perm;
    struct msg *msg_first;  /* first message on queue (internal) */
    struct msg *msg_last;   /* last message in queue (internal) */
    time_t msg_stime;       /* last msgsnd time */
    time_t msg_rtime;       /* last msgrcv time */
    time_t msg_ctime;       /* last change time */
    struct wait_queue *wwait; /* writers waiting (internal) */
    struct wait_queue *rwait; /* readers waiting (internal) */
    ushort msg_cbytes;      /* number of bytes used on queue */
    ushort msg_qnum;        /* number of messages in queue */
    ushort msg_qbytes;      /* max number of bytes on queue */
    ushort msg_lspid;       /* pid of last msgsnd */
    ushort msg_lrpid;       /* pid of last msgrcv */
@end example

To send or receive a message the user allocates a structure that looks
like a @code{msgbuf} but with an array @code{mtext} of the required size.
Messages have a type (positive integer) associated with them so that
(for example) a listener can choose to receive only messages of a
given type.@refill

@example
struct msgbuf
    long mtype;      type of message (@xref{msgrcv}).
    char mtext[1];   message text .. why is this not a ptr?
@end example

The user must have write permissions to send and read permissions
to receive messages on a queue.@refill

When @code{msgsnd} is invoked, the user's message is copied into
an internal struct @code{msg} and added to the queue. A @code{msgrcv}
will then read this message and free the associated struct @code{msg}.@refill


@menu
* msgget::
* msgsnd::
* msgrcv::
* msgctl::
* msglimits:: Implementation defined limits.
@end menu


@node msgget, msgsnd, Messages, Messages
@subsection msgget

@noindent
A message queue is allocated by a msgget system call :

@example
msqid = msgget (key_t key, int msgflg);
@end example

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{key}: an integer usually got from @code{ftok()} or IPC_PRIVATE.@refill
@item
@code{msgflg}:
@itemize @asis
@item
IPC_CREAT : used to create a new resource if it does not already exist.
@item
IPC_EXCL | IPC_CREAT : used to ensure failure of the call if the
resource already exists.@refill
@item
rwxrwxrwx : access permissions.
@end itemize
@item
returns: msqid (an integer used for all further access) on success.
-1 on failure.@refill
@end itemize

A message queue is allocated if there is no resource corresponding
to the given key. The access permissions specified are then copied
into the @code{msg_perm} struct and the fields in @code{msqid_ds}
initialized. The user must use the IPC_CREAT flag or key = IPC_PRIVATE,
if a new instance is to be allocated. If a resource corresponding to
@var{key} already exists, the access permissions are verified.@refill

@noindent
Errors:@*
@noindent
EACCES : (procure) Do not have permission for requested access.@*
@noindent
EEXIST : (allocate) IPC_CREAT | IPC_EXCL specified and resource exists.@*
@noindent
EIDRM  : (procure) The resource was removed.@*
@noindent
ENOSPC : All id's are taken (max of MSGMNI id's system-wide).@*
@noindent
ENOENT : Resource does not exist and IPC_CREAT not specified.@*
@noindent
ENOMEM : A new @code{msqid_ds} was to be created but ... nomem.




@node msgsnd, msgrcv, msgget, Messages
@subsection msgsnd

@example
int msgsnd (int msqid, struct msgbuf *msgp, int msgsz, int msgflg);
@end example

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{msqid} : id obtained by a call to msgget.
@item
@code{msgsz} : size of msg text (@code{mtext}) in bytes.
@item
@code{msgp} : message to be sent. (msgp->mtype must be positive).
@item
@code{msgflg} : IPC_NOWAIT.
@item
returns : msgsz on success. -1 on error.
@end itemize

The message text and type are stored in the internal @code{msg}
structure. @code{msg_cbytes}, @code{msg_qnum}, @code{msg_lspid},
and @code{msg_stime} fields are updated. Readers waiting on the
queue are awakened.@refill

@noindent
Errors:@*
@noindent
EACCES : Do not have write permission on queue.@*
@noindent
EAGAIN : IPC_NOWAIT specified and queue is full.@*
@noindent
EFAULT : msgp not accessible.@*
@noindent
EIDRM  : The message queue was removed.@*
@noindent
EINTR  : Full queue ... would have slept but ... was interrupted.@*
@noindent
EINVAL : mtype < 1, msgsz > MSGMAX, msgsz < 0, msqid < 0 or unused.@*
@noindent
ENOMEM : Could not allocate space for header and text.@*



@node msgrcv, msgctl, msgsnd, Messages
@subsection msgrcv

@example
int msgrcv (int msqid, struct msgbuf *msgp, int msgsz, long msgtyp,
                        int msgflg);
@end example

@itemize @bullet
@item
msqid  : id obtained by a call to msgget.
@item
msgsz  : maximum size of message to receive.
@item
msgp   : allocated by user to store the message in.
@item
msgtyp :
@itemize @asis
@item
0 => get first message on queue.
@item
> 0 => get first message of matching type.
@item
< 0 => get message with least type  which is <= abs(msgtyp). 
@end itemize
@item
msgflg :
@itemize @asis
@item
IPC_NOWAIT : Return immediately if message not found.
@item
MSG_NOERROR : The message is truncated if it is larger than msgsz.
@item
MSG_EXCEPT : Used with msgtyp > 0 to receive any msg except of specified
type.@refill
@end itemize
@item
returns : size of message if found. -1 on error.
@end itemize

The first message that meets the @code{msgtyp} specification is
identified. For msgtyp < 0, the entire queue is searched for the
message with the smallest type.@refill

If its length is smaller than msgsz or if the user specified the
MSG_NOERROR flag, its text and type are copied to msgp->mtext and
msgp->mtype, and it is taken off the queue.@refill

The @code{msg_cbytes}, @code{msg_qnum}, @code{msg_lrpid},
and @code{msg_rtime} fields are updated. Writers waiting on the
queue are awakened.@refill

@noindent
Errors:@*
@noindent
E2BIG  : msg bigger than msgsz and MSG_NOERROR not specified.@*
@noindent
EACCES : Do not have permission for reading the queue.@*
@noindent
EFAULT : msgp not accessible.@*
@noindent
EIDRM  : msg queue was removed.@*
@noindent
EINTR  : msg not found ... would have slept but ... was interrupted.@*
@noindent
EINVAL : msgsz > msgmax or msgsz < 0, msqid < 0 or unused.@*
@noindent
ENOMSG : msg of requested type not found and IPC_NOWAIT specified.



@node msgctl, msglimits, msgrcv, Messages
@subsection msgctl

@example
int msgctl (int msqid, int cmd, struct msqid_ds *buf);
@end example

@itemize @bullet
@item
msqid  : id obtained by a call to msgget.
@item
buf    : allocated by user for reading/writing info.
@item
cmd    : IPC_STAT, IPC_SET, IPC_RMID (@xref{syscalls}).
@end itemize

IPC_STAT results in the copy of the queue data structure
into the user supplied buffer.@refill

In the case of IPC_SET, the queue size (@code{msg_qbytes})
and the @code{uid}, @code{gid}, @code{mode} (low 9 bits) fields
of the @code{msg_perm} struct are set from the user supplied values.
@code{msg_ctime} is updated.@refill

Note that only the super user may increase the limit on the size of a
message queue beyond MSGMNB.@refill

When the queue is destroyed (IPC_RMID), the sequence number is
incremented and all waiting readers and writers are awakened.
These processes will then return with @code{errno} set to EIDRM.@refill

@noindent
Errors:
@noindent
EPERM  : Insufficient privilege to increase the size of the queue (IPC_SET)
or remove it (IPC_RMID).@*
@noindent
EACCES : Do not have permission for reading the queue (IPC_STAT).@*
@noindent
EFAULT : buf not accessible (IPC_STAT, IPC_SET).@*
@noindent
EIDRM  : msg queue was removed.@*
@noindent
EINVAL : invalid cmd, msqid < 0 or unused.


@node msglimits, Semaphores, msgctl, Messages
@subsection Limis on Message Resources

@noindent
Sizeof various structures:
@itemize @asis
@item
msqid_ds        52   /* 1 per message  queue .. dynamic */
@item
msg             16   /* 1 for each message in system .. dynamic */
@item
msgbuf           8   /* allocated by user */
@end itemize

@noindent
Limits
@itemize @bullet
@item
MSGMNI : number of message queue identifiers ... policy.
@item
MSGMAX : max size of message.
Header and message space allocated on one page.
MSGMAX = (PAGE_SIZE - sizeof(struct msg)).
Implementation maximum MSGMAX = 4080.@refill
@item
MSGMNB : default max size of a message queue ... policy.
The super-user can increase the size of a
queue beyond MSGMNB by a @code{msgctl} call.@refill
@end itemize

@noindent
Unused or unimplemented:@*
MSGTQL  max number of message headers system-wide.@*
MSGPOOL total size in bytes of msg pool.


 
@node Semaphores, semget, msglimits, Top
@section Semaphores

Each semaphore has a value >= 0. An id provides access to an array
of @code{nsems} semaphores. Operations such as read, increment or decrement
semaphores in a set are performed by the @code{semop} call which processes
@code{nsops} operations at a time. Each operation is specified in a struct
@code{sembuf} described below. The operations are applied only if all of
them succeed.@refill

If you do not have a need for such arrays, you are probably better off using
the @code{test_bit}, @code{set_bit} and  @code{clear_bit} bit-operations
defined in <asm/bitops.h>.@refill

Semaphore operations may also be qualified by a SEM_UNDO flag which
results in the operation being undone when the process exits.@refill

If a decrement cannot go through, a process will be put to sleep
on a queue waiting for the @code{semval} to increase unless it specifies
IPC_NOWAIT. A read operation can similarly result in a sleep on a
queue waiting for @code{semval} to become 0. (Actually there are
two queues per semaphore array).@refill 

@noindent
A semaphore array is described by:
@example
struct semid_ds
  struct ipc_perm sem_perm;      
  time_t          sem_otime;      /* last semop time */
  time_t          sem_ctime;      /* last change time */
  struct wait_queue *eventn;      /* wait for a semval to increase */
  struct wait_queue *eventz;      /* wait for a semval to become 0 */
  struct sem_undo  *undo;         /* undo entries */
  ushort          sem_nsems;      /* no. of semaphores in array */
@end example

@noindent
Each semaphore is described internally by :
@example
struct sem
  short   sempid;         /* pid of last semop() */
  ushort  semval;         /* current value */
  ushort  semncnt;        /* num procs awaiting increase in semval */
  ushort  semzcnt;        /* num procs awaiting semval = 0 */
@end example

@menu
* semget::
* semop::
* semctl::
* semlimits:: Limits imposed by this implementation.
@end menu

@node semget, semop, Semaphores, Semaphores
@subsection semget

@noindent
A semaphore array is allocated by a semget system call:

@example
semid = semget (key_t key, int nsems, int semflg);
@end example

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{key} : an integer usually got from @code{ftok} or IPC_PRIVATE
@item
@code{nsems} :
@itemize @asis
@item
# of semaphores in array (0 <= nsems <= SEMMSL <= SEMMNS)
@item
0 => dont care can be used when not creating the resource.
If successful you always get access to the entire array anyway.@refill
@end itemize
@item
semflg :
@itemize @asis
@item
IPC_CREAT used to create a new resource
@item
IPC_EXCL used with IPC_CREAT to ensure failure if the resource exists.
@item
rwxrwxrwx  access permissions.
@end itemize
@item
returns : semid on success. -1 on failure.
@end itemize

An array of nsems semaphores is allocated if there is no resource
corresponding to the given key. The access permissions specified are
then copied into the @code{sem_perm} struct for the array along with the
user-id etc. The user must use the IPC_CREAT flag or key = IPC_PRIVATE
if a new resource is to be created.@refill

@noindent
Errors:@*
@noindent
EINVAL : nsems not in above range (allocate).@*
       nsems greater than number in array (procure).@*
@noindent
EEXIST : (allocate) IPC_CREAT | IPC_EXCL specified and resource exists.@*
@noindent
EIDRM  : (procure) The resource was removed.@*
@noindent
ENOMEM : could not allocate space for semaphore array.@*
@noindent
ENOSPC : No arrays available (SEMMNI), too few semaphores available (SEMMNS).@*
@noindent
ENOENT : Resource does not exist and IPC_CREAT not specified.@*
@noindent
EACCES : (procure) do not have permission for specified access.


@node semop, semctl, semget, Semaphores
@subsection semop

@noindent
Operations on semaphore arrays are performed by calling semop :

@example
int semop (int semid, struct sembuf *sops, unsigned nsops);
@end example
@itemize @bullet
@item
semid : id obtained by a call to semget.
@item
sops : array of semaphore operations.
@item
nsops : number of operations in array (0 < nsops < SEMOPM).
@item
returns : semval for last operation. -1 on failure.
@end itemize

@noindent
Operations are described by a structure sembuf:
@example
struct sembuf
    ushort  sem_num;        /* semaphore index in array */
    short   sem_op;         /* semaphore operation */
    short   sem_flg;        /* operation flags */
@end example

The value @code{sem_op} is to be added (signed) to the current value semval
of the semaphore with index sem_num (0 .. nsems -1) in the set.
Flags recognized in sem_flg are IPC_NOWAIT and SEM_UNDO.@refill

@noindent
Two kinds of operations can result in wait:
@enumerate
@item
If sem_op is 0 (read operation) and semval is non-zero, the process
sleeps on a queue waiting for semval to become zero or returns with
error EAGAIN if (IPC_NOWAIT | sem_flg) is true.@refill
@item
If (sem_op < 0) and (semval + sem_op < 0), the process either sleeps
on a queue waiting for semval to increase or returns with error EAGAIN if
(sem_flg & IPC_NOWAIT) is true.@refill
@end enumerate

The array sops is first read in and preliminary checks performed on
the arguments. The operations are parsed to determine if any of
them needs write permissions or requests an undo operation.@refill

The operations are then tried and the process sleeps if any operation
that does not specify IPC_NOWAIT cannot go through. If a process sleeps
it repeats these checks on waking up. If any operation that requests
IPC_NOWAIT, cannot go through at any stage, the call returns with errno
set to EAGAIN.@refill

Finally, operations are committed when all go through without an intervening
sleep. Processes waiting on the zero_queue or increment_queue are awakened
if any of the semval's becomes zero or is incremented respectively.@refill

@noindent
Errors:@*
@noindent
E2BIG  : nsops > SEMOPM.@*
@noindent
EACCES : Do not have permission for requested (read/alter) access.@*
@noindent
EAGAIN : An operation with IPC_NOWAIT specified could not go through.@*
@noindent
EFAULT : The array sops is not accessible.@*
@noindent
EFBIG  : An operation had semnum >= nsems.@*
@noindent
EIDRM  : The resource was removed.@*
@noindent
EINTR  : The process was interrupted on its way to a wait queue.@*
@noindent
EINVAL : nsops is 0, semid < 0 or unused.@*
@noindent
ENOMEM : SEM_UNDO requested. Could not allocate space for undo structure.@*
@noindent
ERANGE : sem_op + semval > SEMVMX for some operation.


@node semctl, semlimits, semop, Semaphores
@subsection semctl

@example
int semctl (int semid, int semnum, int cmd, union semun arg);
@end example

@itemize @bullet
@item
semid : id obtained by a call to semget.
@item
cmd :
@itemize @asis
@item 
GETPID  return pid for the process that executed the last semop.
@item 
GETVAL  return semval of semaphore with index semnum.
@item 
GETNCNT return number of processes waiting for semval to increase.
@item 
GETZCNT return number of processes waiting for semval to become 0
@item 
SETVAL  set semval = arg.val.
@item 
GETALL  read all semval's into arg.array.
@item 
SETALL  set all semval's with values given in arg.array.
@end itemize
@item
returns : 0 on success or as given above. -1 on failure.
@end itemize

The first 4 operate on the semaphore with index semnum in the set.
The last two operate on all semaphores in the set.@refill

@code{arg} is a union :
@example
union semun
    int val;               value for SETVAL.
    struct semid_ds *buf;  buffer for IPC_STAT and IPC_SET.
    ushort *array;         array for GETALL and SETALL
@end example

@itemize @bullet
@item
IPC_SET, SETVAL, SETALL : sem_ctime is updated.
@item
SETVAL, SETALL : Undo entries are cleared for altered semaphores in
all processes. Processes sleeping on the wait queues are
awakened if a semval becomes 0 or increases.@refill
@item
IPC_SET : sem_perm.uid, sem_perm.gid, sem_perm.mode are updated from
user supplied values.@refill
@end itemize

@noindent
Errors:
@noindent
EACCES : do not have permission for specified access.@*
@noindent
EFAULT : arg is not accessible.@*
@noindent
EIDRM  : The resource was removed.@*
@noindent
EINVAL : semid < 0 or semnum < 0 or semnum >= nsems.@*
@noindent
EPERM  : IPC_RMID, IPC_SET ... not creator, owner or super-user.@*
@noindent
ERANGE : arg.array[i].semval > SEMVMX or < 0 for some i.




@node semlimits, Shared Memory, semctl, Semaphores
@subsection Limits on Semaphore Resources

@noindent
Sizeof various structures:
@example
semid_ds    44   /* 1 per semaphore array .. dynamic */
sem          8   /* 1 for each semaphore in system .. dynamic */
sembuf       6   /* allocated by user */
sem_undo    20   /* 1 for each undo request .. dynamic */
@end example

@noindent
Limits :@*
@itemize @bullet
@item
SEMVMX  32767  semaphore maximum value (short).
@item
SEMMNI  number of semaphore identifiers (or arrays) system wide...policy.
@item
SEMMSL  maximum  number  of semaphores per id.
1 semid_ds per array, 1 struct sem per semaphore
=> SEMMSL =  (PAGE_SIZE - sizeof(semid_ds)) / sizeof(sem).
Implementation maximum SEMMSL = 500.@refill
@item
SEMMNS  maximum number of semaphores system wide ... policy.
Setting SEMMNS >= SEMMSL*SEMMNI makes it irrelevent.@refill
@item
SEMOPM  Maximum number of operations in one semop call...policy.
@end itemize

@noindent
Unused or unimplemented:@*
@noindent
SEMAEM  adjust on exit max value.@*
@noindent
SEMMNU  number of undo structures system-wide.@*
@noindent
SEMUME  maximum number of undo entries per process.



@node Shared Memory, shmget, semlimits, Top
@section Shared Memory

Shared memory is distinct from the sharing of read-only code pages or
the sharing of unaltered data pages that is available due to the
copy-on-write mechanism. The essential difference is that the
shared pages are dirty (in the case of Shared memory) and can be
made to appear at a convenient location in the process' address space.@refill

@noindent
A shared segment is described by :
@example
struct shmid_ds
    struct  ipc_perm shm_perm;
    int     shm_segsz;              /* size of segment (bytes) */
    time_t  shm_atime;              /* last attach time */
    time_t  shm_dtime;              /* last detach time */
    time_t  shm_ctime;              /* last change time */
    ulong   *shm_pages;             /* internal page table */
    ushort  shm_cpid;               /* pid, creator */
    ushort  shm_lpid;               /* pid, last operation */
    short   shm_nattch;             /* no. of current attaches */
@end example

A shmget allocates a shmid_ds and an internal page table. A shmat
maps the segment into the process' address space with pointers
into the internal page table and the actual pages are faulted in
as needed. The memory associated with the segment must be explicitly
destroyed by calling shmctl with IPC_RMID.@refill

@menu
* shmget::
* shmat::
* shmdt::
* shmctl::
* shmlimits:: Limits imposed by this implementation.
@end menu


@node shmget, shmat, Shared Memory, Shared Memory
@subsection shmget

@noindent
A shared memory segment is allocated by a shmget system call:

@example
int shmget(key_t key, int size, int shmflg);
@end example

@itemize @bullet
@item
key : an integer usually got from @code{ftok} or IPC_PRIVATE
@item
size : size of the segment in bytes (SHMMIN <= size <= SHMMAX).
@item
shmflg :
@itemize @asis
@item
IPC_CREAT used to create a new resource
@item
IPC_EXCL used with IPC_CREAT to ensure failure if the resource exists.
@item
rwxrwxrwx  access permissions.
@end itemize
@item
returns : shmid on success. -1 on failure.
@end itemize

A descriptor for a shared memory segment is allocated if there isn't one
corresponding to the given key. The access permissions specified are
then copied into the @code{shm_perm} struct for the segment along with the
user-id etc. The user must use the IPC_CREAT flag or key = IPC_PRIVATE
to allocate a new segment.@refill

If the segment already exists, the access permissions are verified,
and a check is made to see that it is not marked for destruction.@refill

@code{size} is effectively rounded up to a multiple of PAGE_SIZE as shared
memory is allocated in pages.@refill

@noindent
Errors:@*
@noindent
EINVAL : (allocate) Size not in range specified above.@*
         (procure) Size greater than size of segment.@*
@noindent
EEXIST : (allocate) IPC_CREAT | IPC_EXCL specified and resource exists.@*
@noindent
EIDRM  : (procure) The resource is marked destroyed or was removed.@*
@noindent
ENOSPC : (allocate) All id's are taken (max of SHMMNI id's system-wide).
Allocating a segment of the requested size would exceed the
system wide limit on total shared memory (SHMALL).@refill
@*
@noindent
ENOENT : (procure) Resource does not exist and IPC_CREAT not specified.@*
@noindent
EACCES : (procure) Do not have permission for specified access.@*
@noindent
ENOMEM : (allocate) Could not allocate memory for shmid_ds or pg_table.



@node shmat, shmdt, shmget, Shared Memory
@subsection shmat

@noindent
Maps a shared segment into the process' address space.

@example
char *virt_addr;
virt_addr =  shmat (int shmid, char *shmaddr, int shmflg);
@end example

@itemize @bullet
@item
shmid : id got from call to shmget.
@item
shmaddr : requested attach address.@*
    If shmaddr is 0 the system finds an unmapped region.@*
    If a non-zero value is indicated the value must be page
    aligned or the user must specify the SHM_RND flag.@refill
@item
shmflg :@*
     SHM_RDONLY : request read-only attach.@*
     SHM_RND : attach address is rounded DOWN to a multiple of SHMLBA.
@item
returns: virtual address of attached segment. -1 on failure.
@end itemize

When shmaddr is 0, the attach address is determined by finding an
unmapped region in the address range 1G to 1.5G, starting at 1.5G
and coming down from there. The algorithm is very simple so you
are encouraged to avoid non-specific attaches.

@noindent
Algorithm:
@display
Determine attach address as described above.
Check region (shmaddr, shmaddr + size) is not mapped and allocate
page tables (undocumented SHM_REMAP flag!).
Map the region by setting up pointers into the internal page table.
Add a descriptor for the attach to the task struct for the process.
@code{shm_nattch}, @code{shm_lpid}, @code{shm_atime} are updated.
@end display

@noindent
Notes:@*
The @code{brk} value is not altered.
The segment is automatically detached when the process exits.
The same segment may be attached as read-only or read-write and
more than once in the process' address space.
A shmat can succeed on a segment marked for destruction.
The request for a particular type of attach is made using the SHM_RDONLY flag.
There is no notion of a write-only attach. The requested attach
permissions must fall within those allowed by @code{shm_perm.mode}.

@noindent
Errors:@*
@noindent
EACCES : Do not have permission for requested access.@*
@noindent
EINVAL : shmid < 0 or unused, shmaddr not aligned, attach at brk failed.@*
@noindent
EIDRM  : resource was removed.@*
@noindent
ENOMEM : Could not allocate memory for descriptor or page tables.


@node shmdt, shmctl, shmat, Shared Memory
@subsection shmdt

@example
int shmdt (char *shmaddr);
@end example

@itemize @bullet
@item
shmaddr : attach address of segment (returned by shmat).
@item
returns : 0 on success. -1 on failure.
@end itemize

An attached segment is detached and @code{shm_nattch} decremented. The
occupied region in user space is unmapped. The segment is destroyed
if it is marked for destruction and @code{shm_nattch} is 0.
@code{shm_lpid} and @code{shm_dtime} are updated.@refill

@noindent
Errors:@*
@noindent
EINVAL : No shared memory segment attached at shmaddr.


@node shmctl, shmlimits, shmdt, Shared Memory
@subsection shmctl

@noindent
Destroys allocated segments. Reads/Writes the control structures.

@example
int shmctl (int shmid, int cmd, struct shmid_ds *buf);
@end example

@itemize @bullet
@item
shmid : id got from call to shmget.
@item
cmd : IPC_STAT, IPC_SET, IPC_RMID (@xref{syscalls}).
@itemize @asis
@item
IPC_SET : Used to set the owner uid, gid, and shm_perms.mode field.
@item
IPC_RMID : The segment is marked destroyed. It is only destroyed
on the last detach.@refill
@item
IPC_STAT : The shmid_ds structure is copied into the user allocated buffer.
@end itemize
@item
buf : used to read (IPC_STAT) or write (IPC_SET) information.
@item
returns : 0 on success, -1 on failure.
@end itemize

The user must execute an IPC_RMID shmctl call to free the memory
allocated by the shared segment. Otherwise all the pages faulted in
will continue to live in memory or swap.@refill

@noindent
Errors:@*
@noindent
EACCES : Do not have permission for requested access.@*
@noindent
EFAULT : buf is not accessible.@*
@noindent
EINVAL : shmid < 0 or unused.@*
@noindent
EIDRM  : identifier destroyed.@*
@noindent
EPERM  : not creator, owner or super-user (IPC_SET, IPC_RMID).


@node shmlimits, Notes, shmctl, Shared Memory
@subsection Limits on Shared Memory Resources

@noindent
Limits:
@itemize @bullet
@item
SHMMNI  max num of shared segments system wide ... 4096.
@item
SHMMAX  max shared memory segment size (bytes) ... 4M
@item
SHMMIN  min shared memory segment size (bytes).
1 byte (though PAGE_SIZE is the effective minimum size).@refill
@item
SHMALL  max shared mem system wide (in pages) ... policy.
@item
SHMLBA  segment low boundary address multiple.
Must be page aligned. SHMLBA = PAGE_SIZE.@refill
@end itemize
@noindent
Unused or unimplemented:@*
SHMSEG : maximum number of shared segments per process.



@node Notes, Top, shmlimits, Top
@section Miscellaneous Notes

The system calls are mapped into one -- @code{sys_ipc}. This should be
transparent to the user.@refill

@subsection Semaphore @code{undo} requests

There is one sem_undo structure associated with a process for
each semaphore which was altered (with an undo request) by the process.
@code{sem_undo} structures are freed only when the process exits.

One major cause for unhappiness with the undo mechanism is that
it does not fit in with the notion of having an atomic set of
operations on an array. The undo requests for an array and each
semaphore therein may have been accumulated over many @code{semop}
calls. Thus use the undo mechanism with private semaphores only.@refill

Should the process sleep in @code{exit} or should all undo
operations be applied with the IPC_NOWAIT flag in effect?
Currently  those undo operations which go through immediately are
applied and those that require a wait are ignored silently.@refill

@subsection Shared memory, @code{malloc} and the @code{brk}.
Note that since this section was written the implementation was
changed so that non-specific attaches are done in the region
1G - 1.5G. However much of the following is still worth thinking
about so I left it in.

On many systems, the shared memory is allocated in a special region
of the address space ... way up somewhere. As mentioned earlier,
this implementation attaches shared segments at the lowest possible
address. Thus if you plan to use @code{malloc}, it is wise to malloc a
large space and then proceed to attach the shared segments. This way
malloc sets the brk sufficiently above the region it will use.@refill

Alternatively you can use @code{sbrk} to adjust the @code{brk} value
as you make shared memory attaches. The implementation is not very
smart about selecting attach addresses. Using the system default
addresses will result in fragmentation if detaches do not occur
in the reverse sequence as attaches.@refill

Taking control of the matter is probably best. The rule applied
is that attaches are allowed in unmapped regions other than
in the text space (see <a.out.h>). Also remember that attach addresses
and segment sizes are multiples of PAGE_SIZE.@refill

One more trap (I quote Bruno on this). If you use malloc() to get space
for your shared memory (ie. to fix the @code{brk}), you must ensure you
get an unmapped address range. This means you must mallocate more memory
than you had ever allocated before. Memory returned by malloc(), used,
then freed by free() and then again returned by malloc is no good.
Neither is calloced memory.@refill

Note that a shared memory region remains a shared memory region until
you unmap it. Attaching a segment at the @code{brk} and calling malloc
after that will result in an overlap of what malloc thinks is its
space with what is really a shared memory region. For example in the case
of a read-only attach, you will not be able to write to the overlapped
portion.@refill


@subsection Fork, exec and exit

On a fork, the child inherits attached shared memory segments but
not the semaphore undo information.@refill

In the case of an exec, the attached shared segments are detached.
The sem undo information however remains intact.@refill

Upon exit, all attached shared memory segments are detached.
The adjust values in the undo structures are added to the relevant semvals
if the operations are permitted. Disallowed operations are ignored.@refill


@subsection Other Features

These features of the current implementation are
likely to be modified in the future.

The SHM_LOCK and SHM_UNLOCK flag are available (super-user) for use with the
@code{shmctl} call to prevent swapping of a shared segment. The user
must fault in any pages that are required to be present after locking
is enabled.

The IPC_INFO, MSG_STAT, MSG_INFO, SHM_STAT, SHM_INFO, SEM_STAT, SEMINFO
@code{ctl} calls are used by the @code{ipcs} program to provide information
on allocated resources. These can be modified as needed or moved to a proc
file system interface.


@sp 3
Thanks to Ove Ewerlid, Bruno Haible, Ulrich Pegelow and Linus Torvalds
for ideas, tutorials, bug reports and fixes, and merriment. And more
thanks to Bruno.


@contents
@bye