--- /dev/null
+This is Info file binutils.info, produced by Makeinfo-1.55 from the
+input file ./binutils.texi.
+
+START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+* Binutils:: The GNU binary utilities "ar", "ld", "objcopy",
+ "objdump", "nm", "size", "strings", "strip", and "ranlib".
+END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+
+ Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+
+ Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
+manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
+preserved on all copies.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
+this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
+that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms
+of a permission notice identical to this one.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
+manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
+versions.
+
+\1f
+File: binutils.info, Node: Top, Next: ar, Prev: (dir), Up: (dir)
+
+Introduction
+************
+
+ This brief manual contains preliminary documentation for the GNU
+binary utilities (collectively version 2.2):
+
+* Menu:
+
+* ar:: Create, modify, and extract from archives
+* ld:(ld)Overview. Combine object and archive files
+* nm:: List symbols from object files
+* objcopy:: Copy and translate object files
+* objdump:: Display information from object files
+* ranlib:: Generate index to archive contents
+* size:: List section sizes and total size
+* strings:: List printable strings from files
+* strip:: Discard symbols
+* c++filt:: Filter to demangle encoded C++ symbols
+* Index::
+
+\1f
+File: binutils.info, Node: ar, Next: nm, Prev: Top, Up: Top
+
+ar
+**
+
+ ar [-]P[MOD [RELPOS]] ARCHIVE [MEMBER...]
+ ar -M [ <mri-script ]
+
+ The GNU `ar' program creates, modifies, and extracts from archives.
+An "archive" is a single file holding a collection of other files in a
+structure that makes it possible to retrieve the original individual
+files (called "members" of the archive).
+
+ The original files' contents, mode (permissions), timestamp, owner,
+and group are preserved in the archive, and can be restored on
+extraction.
+
+ GNU `ar' can maintain archives whose members have names of any
+length; however, depending on how `ar' is configured on your system, a
+limit on member-name length may be imposed for compatibility with
+archive formats maintained with other tools. If it exists, the limit
+is often 15 characters (typical of formats related to a.out) or 16
+characters (typical of formats related to coff).
+
+ `ar' is considered a binary utility because archives of this sort
+are most often used as "libraries" holding commonly needed subroutines.
+
+ `ar' creates an index to the symbols defined in relocatable object
+modules in the archive when you specify the modifier `s'. Once
+created, this index is updated in the archive whenever `ar' makes a
+change to its contents (save for the `q' update operation). An archive
+with such an index speeds up linking to the library, and allows
+routines in the library to call each other without regard to their
+placement in the archive.
+
+ You may use `nm -s' or `nm --print-armap' to list this index table.
+If an archive lacks the table, another form of `ar' called `ranlib' can
+be used to add just the table.
+
+ GNU `ar' is designed to be compatible with two different facilities.
+You can control its activity using command-line options, like the
+different varieties of `ar' on Unix systems; or, if you specify the
+single command-line option `-M', you can control it with a script
+supplied via standard input, like the MRI "librarian" program.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* ar-cmdline:: Controlling `ar' on the command line
+* ar-scripts:: Controlling `ar' with a script
+
+\1f
+File: binutils.info, Node: ar-cmdline, Next: ar-scripts, Prev: ar, Up: ar
+
+Controlling `ar' on the command line
+====================================
+
+ ar [-]P[MOD [RELPOS]] ARCHIVE [MEMBER...]
+
+ When you use `ar' in the Unix style, `ar' insists on at least two
+arguments to execute: one keyletter specifying the *operation*
+(optionally accompanied by other keyletters specifying *modifiers*),
+and the archive name to act on.
+
+ Most operations can also accept further MEMBER arguments, specifying
+particular files to operate on.
+
+ GNU `ar' allows you to mix the operation code P and modifier flags
+MOD in any order, within the first command-line argument.
+
+ If you wish, you may begin the first command-line argument with a
+dash.
+
+ The P keyletter specifies what operation to execute; it may be any
+of the following, but you must specify only one of them:
+
+`d'
+ *Delete* modules from the archive. Specify the names of modules to
+ be deleted as MEMBER...; the archive is untouched if you specify
+ no files to delete.
+
+ If you specify the `v' modifier, `ar' lists each module as it is
+ deleted.
+
+`m'
+ Use this operation to *move* members in an archive.
+
+ The ordering of members in an archive can make a difference in how
+ programs are linked using the library, if a symbol is defined in
+ more than one member.
+
+ If no modifiers are used with `m', any members you name in the
+ MEMBER arguments are moved to the *end* of the archive; you can
+ use the `a', `b', or `i' modifiers to move them to a specified
+ place instead.
+
+`p'
+ *Print* the specified members of the archive, to the standard
+ output file. If the `v' modifier is specified, show the member
+ name before copying its contents to standard output.
+
+ If you specify no MEMBER arguments, all the files in the archive
+ are printed.
+
+`q'
+ *Quick append*; add the files MEMBER... to the end of ARCHIVE,
+ without checking for replacement.
+
+ The modifiers `a', `b', and `i' do *not* affect this operation;
+ new members are always placed at the end of the archive.
+
+ The modifier `v' makes `ar' list each file as it is appended.
+
+ Since the point of this operation is speed, the archive's symbol
+ table index is not updated, even if it already existed; you can
+ use `ar s' or `ranlib' explicitly to update the symbol table index.
+
+`r'
+ Insert the files MEMBER... into ARCHIVE (with *replacement*). This
+ operation differs from `q' in that any previously existing members
+ are deleted if their names match those being added.
+
+ If one of the files named in MEMBER... does not exist, `ar'
+ displays an error message, and leaves undisturbed any existing
+ members of the archive matching that name.
+
+ By default, new members are added at the end of the file; but you
+ may use one of the modifiers `a', `b', or `i' to request placement
+ relative to some existing member.
+
+ The modifier `v' used with this operation elicits a line of output
+ for each file inserted, along with one of the letters `a' or `r'
+ to indicate whether the file was appended (no old member deleted)
+ or replaced.
+
+`t'
+ Display a *table* listing the contents of ARCHIVE, or those of the
+ files listed in MEMBER... that are present in the archive.
+ Normally only the member name is shown; if you also want to see
+ the modes (permissions), timestamp, owner, group, and size, you can
+ request that by also specifying the `v' modifier.
+
+ If you do not specify a MEMBER, all files in the archive are
+ listed.
+
+ If there is more than one file with the same name (say, `fie') in
+ an archive (say `b.a'), `ar t b.a fie' lists only the first
+ instance; to see them all, you must ask for a complete listing--in
+ our example, `ar t b.a'.
+
+`x'
+ *Extract* members (named MEMBER) from the archive. You can use
+ the `v' modifier with this operation, to request that `ar' list
+ each name as it extracts it.
+
+ If you do not specify a MEMBER, all files in the archive are
+ extracted.
+
+ A number of modifiers (MOD) may immediately follow the P keyletter,
+to specify variations on an operation's behavior:
+
+`a'
+ Add new files *after* an existing member of the archive. If you
+ use the modifier `a', the name of an existing archive member must
+ be present as the RELPOS argument, before the ARCHIVE
+ specification.
+
+`b'
+ Add new files *before* an existing member of the archive. If you
+ use the modifier `b', the name of an existing archive member must
+ be present as the RELPOS argument, before the ARCHIVE
+ specification. (same as `i').
+
+`c'
+ *Create* the archive. The specified ARCHIVE is always created if
+ it did not exist, when you request an update. But a warning is
+ issued unless you specify in advance that you expect to create it,
+ by using this modifier.
+
+`i'
+ Insert new files *before* an existing member of the archive. If
+ you use the modifier `i', the name of an existing archive member
+ must be present as the RELPOS argument, before the ARCHIVE
+ specification. (same as `b').
+
+`l'
+ This modifier is accepted but not used.
+
+`o'
+ Preserve the *original* dates of members when extracting them. If
+ you do not specify this modifier, files extracted from the archive
+ are stamped with the time of extraction.
+
+`s'
+ Write an object-file index into the archive, or update an existing
+ one, even if no other change is made to the archive. You may use
+ this modifier flag either with any operation, or alone. Running
+ `ar s' on an archive is equivalent to running `ranlib' on it.
+
+`u'
+ Normally, `ar r'... inserts all files listed into the archive. If
+ you would like to insert *only* those of the files you list that
+ are newer than existing members of the same names, use this
+ modifier. The `u' modifier is allowed only for the operation `r'
+ (replace). In particular, the combination `qu' is not allowed,
+ since checking the timestamps would lose any speed advantage from
+ the operation `q'.
+
+`v'
+ This modifier requests the *verbose* version of an operation. Many
+ operations display additional information, such as filenames
+ processed, when the modifier `v' is appended.
+
+`V'
+ This modifier shows the version number of `ar'.
+
+\1f
+File: binutils.info, Node: ar-scripts, Prev: ar-cmdline, Up: ar
+
+Controlling `ar' with a script
+==============================
+
+ ar -M [ <SCRIPT ]
+
+ If you use the single command-line option `-M' with `ar', you can
+control its operation with a rudimentary command language. This form
+of `ar' operates interactively if standard input is coming directly
+from a terminal. During interactive use, `ar' prompts for input (the
+prompt is `AR >'), and continues executing even after errors. If you
+redirect standard input to a script file, no prompts are issued, and
+`ar' abandons execution (with a nonzero exit code) on any error.
+
+ The `ar' command language is *not* designed to be equivalent to the
+command-line options; in fact, it provides somewhat less control over
+archives. The only purpose of the command language is to ease the
+transition to GNU `ar' for developers who already have scripts written
+for the MRI "librarian" program.
+
+ The syntax for the `ar' command language is straightforward:
+ * commands are recognized in upper or lower case; for example, `LIST'
+ is the same as `list'. In the following descriptions, commands are
+ shown in upper case for clarity.
+
+ * a single command may appear on each line; it is the first word on
+ the line.
+
+ * empty lines are allowed, and have no effect.
+
+ * comments are allowed; text after either of the characters `*' or
+ `;' is ignored.
+
+ * Whenever you use a list of names as part of the argument to an `ar'
+ command, you can separate the individual names with either commas
+ or blanks. Commas are shown in the explanations below, for
+ clarity.
+
+ * `+' is used as a line continuation character; if `+' appears at
+ the end of a line, the text on the following line is considered
+ part of the current command.
+
+ Here are the commands you can use in `ar' scripts, or when using
+`ar' interactively. Three of them have special significance:
+
+ `OPEN' or `CREATE' specify a "current archive", which is a temporary
+file required for most of the other commands.
+
+ `SAVE' commits the changes so far specified by the script. Prior to
+`SAVE', commands affect only the temporary copy of the current archive.
+
+`ADDLIB ARCHIVE'
+`ADDLIB ARCHIVE (MODULE, MODULE, ... MODULE)'
+ Add all the contents of ARCHIVE (or, if specified, each named
+ MODULE from ARCHIVE) to the current archive.
+
+ Requires prior use of `OPEN' or `CREATE'.
+
+`ADDMOD MEMBER, MEMBER, ... MEMBER'
+ Add each named MEMBER as a module in the current archive.
+
+ Requires prior use of `OPEN' or `CREATE'.
+
+`CLEAR'
+ Discard the contents of the current archive, cancelling the effect
+ of any operations since the last `SAVE'. May be executed (with no
+ effect) even if no current archive is specified.
+
+`CREATE ARCHIVE'
+ Creates an archive, and makes it the current archive (required for
+ many other commands). The new archive is created with a temporary
+ name; it is not actually saved as ARCHIVE until you use `SAVE'.
+ You can overwrite existing archives; similarly, the contents of any
+ existing file named ARCHIVE will not be destroyed until `SAVE'.
+
+`DELETE MODULE, MODULE, ... MODULE'
+ Delete each listed MODULE from the current archive; equivalent to
+ `ar -d ARCHIVE MODULE ... MODULE'.
+
+ Requires prior use of `OPEN' or `CREATE'.
+
+`DIRECTORY ARCHIVE (MODULE, ... MODULE)'
+`DIRECTORY ARCHIVE (MODULE, ... MODULE) OUTPUTFILE'
+ List each named MODULE present in ARCHIVE. The separate command
+ `VERBOSE' specifies the form of the output: when verbose output is
+ off, output is like that of `ar -t ARCHIVE MODULE...'. When
+ verbose output is on, the listing is like `ar -tv ARCHIVE
+ MODULE...'.
+
+ Output normally goes to the standard output stream; however, if you
+ specify OUTPUTFILE as a final argument, `ar' directs the output to
+ that file.
+
+`END'
+ Exit from `ar', with a `0' exit code to indicate successful
+ completion. This command does not save the output file; if you
+ have changed the current archive since the last `SAVE' command,
+ those changes are lost.
+
+`EXTRACT MODULE, MODULE, ... MODULE'
+ Extract each named MODULE from the current archive, writing them
+ into the current directory as separate files. Equivalent to `ar -x
+ ARCHIVE MODULE...'.
+
+ Requires prior use of `OPEN' or `CREATE'.
+
+`LIST'
+ Display full contents of the current archive, in "verbose" style
+ regardless of the state of `VERBOSE'. The effect is like `ar tv
+ ARCHIVE'). (This single command is a GNU `ld' enhancement, rather
+ than present for MRI compatibility.)
+
+ Requires prior use of `OPEN' or `CREATE'.
+
+`OPEN ARCHIVE'
+ Opens an existing archive for use as the current archive (required
+ for many other commands). Any changes as the result of subsequent
+ commands will not actually affect ARCHIVE until you next use
+ `SAVE'.
+
+`REPLACE MODULE, MODULE, ... MODULE'
+ In the current archive, replace each existing MODULE (named in the
+ `REPLACE' arguments) from files in the current working directory.
+ To execute this command without errors, both the file, and the
+ module in the current archive, must exist.
+
+ Requires prior use of `OPEN' or `CREATE'.
+
+`VERBOSE'
+ Toggle an internal flag governing the output from `DIRECTORY'.
+ When the flag is on, `DIRECTORY' output matches output from `ar
+ -tv '....
+
+`SAVE'
+ Commit your changes to the current archive, and actually save it
+ as a file with the name specified in the last `CREATE' or `OPEN'
+ command.
+
+ Requires prior use of `OPEN' or `CREATE'.
+
+\1f
+File: binutils.info, Node: nm, Next: objcopy, Prev: ar, Up: Top
+
+nm
+**
+
+ nm [ -a | --debug-syms ] [ -g | --extern-only ]
+ [ -B ] [ -C | --demangle ]
+ [ -s | --print-armap ] [ -A | -o | --print-file-name ]
+ [ -n | -v | --numeric-sort ] [ -p | --no-sort ]
+ [ -r | --reverse-sort ] [ -u | --undefined-only ]
+ [ -t RADIX | --radix=RADIX ] [ -P | --portability ]
+ [ --target=BFDNAME ] [ -f FORMAT | --format=FORMAT ]
+ [ -V | --version ] [ --help ] [ OBJFILE... ]
+
+ GNU `nm' lists the symbols from object files OBJFILE.... If no
+object files are listed as arguments, `nm' assumes `a.out'.
+
+ For each symbol, `nm' shows:
+
+ * The symbol value, in the radix selected by options (see below), or
+ hexadecimal by default.
+
+ * The symbol type. At least the following types are used; others
+ are, as well, depending on the object file format. If lowercase,
+ the symbol is local; if uppercase, the symbol is global (external).
+
+ `A'
+ Absolute.
+
+ `B'
+ BSS (uninitialized data).
+
+ `C'
+ Common.
+
+ `D'
+ Initialized data.
+
+ `I'
+ Indirect reference.
+
+ `T'
+ Text (program code).
+
+ `U'
+ Undefined.
+
+ * The symbol name.
+
+ The long and short forms of options, shown here as alternatives, are
+equivalent.
+
+`-A'
+`-o'
+`--print-file-name'
+ Precede each symbol by the name of the input file (or archive
+ element) in which it was found, rather than identifying the input
+ file once only, before all of its symbols.
+
+`-a'
+`--debug-syms'
+ Display all symbols, even debugger-only symbols; normally these
+ are not listed.
+
+`-B'
+ The same as `--format=bsd' (for compatibility with the MIPS `nm').
+
+`-C'
+`--demangle'
+ Decode ("demangle") low-level symbol names into user-level names.
+ Besides removing any initial underscore prepended by the system,
+ this makes C++ function names readable. *Note c++filt::, for more
+ information on demangling.
+
+`-f FORMAT'
+`--format=FORMAT'
+ Use the output format FORMAT, which can be `bsd', `sysv', or
+ `posix'. The default is `bsd'. Only the first character of
+ FORMAT is significant; it can be either upper or lower case.
+
+`-g'
+`--extern-only'
+ Display only external symbols.
+
+`-n'
+`-v'
+`--numeric-sort'
+ Sort symbols numerically by their addresses, rather than
+ alphabetically by their names.
+
+`-p'
+`--no-sort'
+ Do not bother to sort the symbols in any order; print them in the
+ order encountered.
+
+`-P'
+`--portability'
+ Use the POSIX.2 standard output format instead of the default
+ format. Equivalent to `-f posix'.
+
+`-s'
+`--print-armap'
+ When listing symbols from archive members, include the index: a
+ mapping (stored in the archive by `ar' or `ranlib') of which
+ modules contain definitions for which names.
+
+`-r'
+`--reverse-sort'
+ Reverse the order of the sort (whether numeric or alphabetic); let
+ the last come first.
+
+`-t RADIX'
+`--radix=RADIX'
+ Use RADIX as the radix for printing the symbol values. It must be
+ `d' for decimal, `o' for octal, or `x' for hexadecimal.
+
+`--target=BFDNAME'
+ Specify an object code format other than your system's default
+ format. *Note objdump::, for information on listing available
+ formats.
+
+`-u'
+`--undefined-only'
+ Display only undefined symbols (those external to each object
+ file).
+
+`-V'
+`--version'
+ Show the version number of `nm' and exit.
+
+`--help'
+ Show a summary of the options to `nm' and exit.
+
+\1f
+File: binutils.info, Node: objcopy, Next: objdump, Prev: nm, Up: Top
+
+objcopy
+*******
+
+ objcopy [ -F FORMAT | --format=FORMAT ]
+ [ -I FORMAT | --input-format=FORMAT ]
+ [ -O FORMAT | --output-format=FORMAT ]
+ [ -S | --strip-all ] [ -g | --strip-debug ]
+ [ -x | --discard-all ] [ -X | --discard-locals ]
+ [ -v | --verbose ] [ -V | --version ] [ --help ]
+ INFILE [OUTFILE]
+
+ The GNU `objcopy' utility copies the contents of an object file to
+another. `objcopy' uses the GNU BFD Library to read and write the
+object files. It can write the destination object file in a format
+different from that of the source object file. The exact behavior of
+`objcopy' is controlled by command-line options.
+
+ `objcopy' creates temporary files to do its translations and deletes
+them afterward. `objcopy' uses BFD to do all its translation work; it
+knows about all the formats BFD knows about, and thus is able to
+recognize most formats without being told explicitly. *Note BFD:
+(ld.info)BFD the GNU linker.
+
+`INFILE'
+`OUTFILE'
+ The source and output files respectively. If you do not specify
+ OUTFILE, `objcopy' creates a temporary file and destructively
+ renames the result with the name of the input file.
+
+`-I FORMAT'
+`--input-format=FORMAT'
+ Consider the source file's object format to be FORMAT, rather than
+ attempting to deduce it.
+
+`-O FORMAT'
+`--output-format=FORMAT'
+ Write the output file using the object format FORMAT.
+
+`-F FORMAT'
+`--format=FORMAT'
+ Use FORMAT as the object format for both the input and the output
+ file; i.e. simply transfer data from source to destination with no
+ translation.
+
+`-S'
+`--strip-all'
+ Do not copy relocation and symbol information from the source file.
+
+`-g'
+`--strip-debug'
+ Do not copy debugging symbols from the source file.
+
+`-x'
+`--discard-all'
+ Do not copy non-global symbols from the source file.
+
+`-X'
+`--discard-locals'
+ Do not copy compiler-generated local symbols. (These usually
+ start with `L' or `.'.)
+
+`-V'
+`--version'
+ Show the version number of `objcopy'.
+
+`-v'
+`--verbose'
+ Verbose output: list all object files modified. In the case of
+ archives, `objcopy -V' lists all members of the archive.
+
+`--help'
+ Show a summary of the options to `objcopy'.
+
+\1f
+File: binutils.info, Node: objdump, Next: ranlib, Prev: objcopy, Up: Top
+
+objdump
+*******
+
+ objdump [ -a ] [ -b BFDNAME ] [ -d ] [ -f ]
+ [ -h | --header ] [ -i ] [ -j SECTION ] [ -l ]
+ [ -m MACHINE ] [ -r | --reloc ] [ -s ] [ --stabs ]
+ [ -t | --syms ] [ -x ] [ --version ] [ --help ]
+ OBJFILE...
+
+ `objdump' displays information about one or more object files. The
+options control what particular information to display. This
+information is mostly useful to programmers who are working on the
+compilation tools, as opposed to programmers who just want their
+program to compile and work.
+
+ OBJFILE... are the object files to be examined. When you specify
+archives, `objdump' shows information on each of the member object
+files.
+
+ The long and short forms of options, shown here as alternatives, are
+equivalent. At least one option besides `-l' must be given.
+
+`-a'
+ If any of the OBJFILE files are archives, display the archive
+ header information (in a format similar to `ls -l'). Besides the
+ information you could list with `ar tv', `objdump -a' shows the
+ object file format of each archive member.
+
+`-b BFDNAME'
+ Specify that the object-code format for the object files is
+ BFDNAME. This option may not be necessary; OBJDUMP can
+ automatically recognize many formats.
+
+ For example,
+ objdump -b oasys -m vax -h fu.o
+
+ displays summary information from the section headers (`-h') of
+ `fu.o', which is explicitly identified (`-m') as a VAX object file
+ in the format produced by Oasys compilers. You can list the
+ formats available with the `-i' option.
+
+`-d'
+ Disassemble. Display the assembler mnemonics for the machine
+ instructions from OBJFILE.
+
+`-f'
+ File header. Display summary information from the overall header
+ of each of the OBJFILE files.
+
+`-h'
+`--header'
+ Header. Display summary information from the section headers of
+ the object file.
+
+`--help'
+ Print a summary of the options to `objdump' and exit.
+
+`-i'
+ Display a list showing all architectures and object formats
+ available for specification with `-b' or `-m'.
+
+`-j NAME'
+ Display information only for section NAME.
+
+`-l'
+ Label the display (using debugging information) with the source
+ filename and line numbers corresponding to the object code shown.
+
+`-m MACHINE'
+ Specify that the object files OBJFILE are for architecture
+ MACHINE. You can list available architectures using the `-i'
+ option.
+
+`-r'
+`--reloc'
+ Relocation. Print the relocation entries of the file.
+
+`-s'
+ Display the full contents of any sections requested.
+
+`--stabs'
+ Display the full contents of any sections requested. Display the
+ contents of the .stab and .stab.index and .stab.excl sections from
+ an ELF file. This is only useful on systems (such as Solaris 2.0)
+ in which `.stab' debugging symbol-table entries are carried in an
+ ELF section. In most other file formats, debugging symbol-table
+ entries are interleaved with linkage symbols, and are visible in
+ the `--syms' output.
+
+`-t'
+`--syms'
+ Symbol Table. Print the symbol table entries of the file. This
+ is similar to the information provided by the `nm' program.
+
+`--version'
+ Print the version number of `objdump' and exit.
+
+`-x'
+ Display all available header information, including the symbol
+ table and relocation entries. Using `-x' is equivalent to
+ specifying all of `-a -f -h -r -t'.
+
+\1f
+File: binutils.info, Node: ranlib, Next: size, Prev: objdump, Up: Top
+
+ranlib
+******
+
+ ranlib [-vV] ARCHIVE
+
+ `ranlib' generates an index to the contents of an archive and stores
+it in the archive. The index lists each symbol defined by a member of
+an archive that is a relocatable object file.
+
+ You may use `nm -s' or `nm --print-armap' to list this index.
+
+ An archive with such an index speeds up linking to the library and
+allows routines in the library to call each other without regard to
+their placement in the archive.
+
+ The GNU `ranlib' program is another form of GNU `ar'; running
+`ranlib' is completely equivalent to executing `ar -s'. *Note ar::.
+
+`-v'
+`-V'
+ Show the version number of `ranlib'.
+
+\1f
+File: binutils.info, Node: size, Next: strings, Prev: ranlib, Up: Top
+
+size
+****
+
+ size [ -A | -B | --format=COMPATIBILITY ]
+ [ --help ] [ -d | -o | -x | --radix=NUMBER ]
+ [ --target=BFDNAME ] [ -V | --version ]
+ OBJFILE...
+
+ The GNU `size' utility lists the section sizes--and the total
+size--for each of the object or archive files OBJFILE in its argument
+list. By default, one line of output is generated for each object file
+or each module in an archive.
+
+ OBJFILE... are the object files to be examined.
+
+ The command line options have the following meanings:
+
+`-A'
+`-B'
+`--format=COMPATIBILITY'
+ Using one of these options, you can choose whether the output from
+ GNU `size' resembles output from System V `size' (using `-A', or
+ `--format=sysv'), or Berkeley `size' (using `-B', or
+ `--format=berkeley'). The default is the one-line format similar
+ to Berkeley's.
+
+ Here is an example of the Berkeley (default) format of output from
+ `size':
+ size --format Berkeley ranlib size
+ text data bss dec hex filename
+ 294880 81920 11592 388392 5ed28 ranlib
+ 294880 81920 11888 388688 5ee50 size
+
+ This is the same data, but displayed closer to System V
+ conventions:
+
+ size --format SysV ranlib size
+ ranlib :
+ section size addr
+ .text 294880 8192
+ .data 81920 303104
+ .bss 11592 385024
+ Total 388392
+
+
+ size :
+ section size addr
+ .text 294880 8192
+ .data 81920 303104
+ .bss 11888 385024
+ Total 388688
+
+`--help'
+ Show a summary of acceptable arguments and options.
+
+`-d'
+`-o'
+`-x'
+`--radix=NUMBER'
+ Using one of these options, you can control whether the size of
+ each section is given in decimal (`-d', or `--radix=10'); octal
+ (`-o', or `--radix=8'); or hexadecimal (`-x', or `--radix=16').
+ In `--radix=NUMBER', only the three values (8, 10, 16) are
+ supported. The total size is always given in two radices; decimal
+ and hexadecimal for `-d' or `-x' output, or octal and hexadecimal
+ if you're using `-o'.
+
+`--target=BFDNAME'
+ Specify that the object-code format for OBJFILE is BFDNAME. This
+ option may not be necessary; `size' can automatically recognize
+ many formats. *Note objdump::, for information on listing
+ available formats.
+
+`-V'
+`--version'
+ Display the version number of `size'.
+
+\1f
+File: binutils.info, Node: strings, Next: strip, Prev: size, Up: Top
+
+strings
+*******
+
+ strings [-afov] [-MIN-LEN] [-n MIN-LEN] [-t RADIX] [-]
+ [--all] [--print-file-name] [--bytes=MIN-LEN]
+ [--radix=RADIX] [--help] [--version] FILE...
+
+ For each FILE given, GNU `strings' prints the printable character
+sequences that are at least 4 characters long (or the number given with
+the options below) and are followed by a NUL or newline character. By
+default, it only prints the strings from the initialized data sections
+of object files; for other types of files, it prints the strings from
+the whole file.
+
+ `strings' is mainly useful for determining the contents of non-text
+files.
+
+`-a'
+`--all'
+`-'
+ Do not scan only the initialized data section of object files; scan
+ the whole files.
+
+`-f'
+`--print-file-name'
+ Print the name of the file before each string.
+
+`--help'
+ Print a summary of the program usage on the standard output and
+ exit.
+
+`-MIN-LEN'
+`-n MIN-LEN'
+`--bytes=MIN-LEN'
+ Print sequences of characters that are at least MIN-LEN characters
+ long, instead of the default 4.
+
+`-o'
+ Like `-t o'. Some other versions of `strings' have `-o' act like
+ `-t d' instead. Since we can not be compatible with both ways, we
+ simply chose one.
+
+`-t RADIX'
+`--radix=RADIX'
+ Print the offset within the file before each string. The single
+ character argument specifies the radix of the offset--`o' for
+ octal, `x' for hexadecimal, or `d' for decimal.
+
+`-v'
+`--version'
+ Print the program version number on the standard output and exit.
+
+\1f
+File: binutils.info, Node: strip, Next: c++filt, Prev: strings, Up: Top
+
+strip
+*****
+
+ strip [ -F FORMAT | --format=FORMAT | --target=FORMAT ]
+ [ -I FORMAT | --input-format=FORMAT ]
+ [ -O FORMAT | --output-format=FORMAT ]
+ [ -s | --strip-all ] [ -S | -g | --strip-debug ]
+ [ -x | --discard-all ] [ -X | --discard-locals ]
+ [ -v | --verbose ] [ -V | --version ] [ --help ]
+ OBJFILE...
+
+ GNU `strip' discards all symbols from object files OBJFILE. The
+list of object files may include archives. At least one object file
+must be given.
+
+ `strip' modifies the files named in its argument, rather than
+writing modified copies under different names.
+
+`-F FORMAT'
+`--format=FORMAT'
+`--target=FORMAT'
+ Treat the original OBJFILE as a file with the object code format
+ FORMAT, and rewrite it in the same format.
+
+`--help'
+ Show a summary of the options to `strip' and exit.
+
+`-I FORMAT'
+`--input-format=FORMAT'
+ Treat the original OBJFILE as a file with the object code format
+ FORMAT.
+
+`-O FORMAT'
+`--output-format=FORMAT'
+ Replace OBJFILE with a file in the output format FORMAT.
+
+`-s'
+`--strip-all'
+ Remove all symbols.
+
+`-g'
+`-S'
+`--strip-debug'
+ Remove debugging symbols only.
+
+`-x'
+`--discard-all'
+ Remove non-global symbols.
+
+`-X'
+`--discard-locals'
+ Remove compiler-generated local symbols. (These usually start
+ with `L' or `.'.)
+
+`-V'
+`--version'
+ Show the version number for `strip'.
+
+`-v'
+`--verbose'
+ Verbose output: list all object files modified. In the case of
+ archives, `strip -v' lists all members of the archive.
+
+\1f
+File: binutils.info, Node: c++filt, Next: Index, Prev: strip, Up: Top
+
+c++filt
+*******
+
+ c++filt [ -_ | --strip-underscores ]
+ [ -s FORMAT | --format=FORMAT ]
+ [ --help ] [ --version ] [ SYMBOL... ]
+
+ The C++ language provides function overloading, which means that you
+can write many functions with the same name (providing each takes
+parameters of different types). All C++ function names are encoded
+into a low-level assembly label (this process is known as "mangling").
+The `c++filt' program does the inverse mapping: it decodes
+("demangles") low-level names into user-level names so that the linker
+can keep these overloaded functions from clashing.
+
+ Every alphanumeric word (consisting of letters, digits, underscores,
+dollars, or periods) seen in the input is a potential label. If the
+label decodes into a C++ name, the C++ name replaces the low-level name
+in the output.
+
+ You can use `c++filt' to decipher individual symbols:
+
+ c++filt SYMBOL
+
+ If no SYMBOL arguments are given, `c++filt' reads symbol names from
+the standard input and writes the demangled names to the standard
+output. All results are printed on the standard output.
+
+`-_'
+`--strip-underscores'
+ On some systems, both the C and C++ compilers put an underscore in
+ front of every name. For example, the C name `foo' gets the
+ low-level name `_foo'. This option removes the initial underscore.
+
+`-s FORMAT'
+`--format=FORMAT'
+ GNU `nm' can decode three different methods of mangling, used by
+ different C++ compilers. The argument to this option selects which
+ method it uses:
+
+ `gnu'
+ the one used by the GNU compiler (the default method)
+
+ `lucid'
+ the one used by the Lucid compiler
+
+ `arm'
+ the one specified by the C++ Annotated Reference Manual
+
+`--help'
+ Print a summary of the options to `c++filt' and exit.
+
+`--version'
+ Print the version number of `c++filt' and exit.
+
+ *Warning:* `c++filt' is a new utility, and the details of its user
+ interface are subject to change in future releases. In particular,
+ a command-line option may be required in the the future to decode
+ a name passed as an argument on the command line; in other words,
+
+ c++filt SYMBOL
+
+ may in a future release become
+
+ c++filt OPTION SYMBOL
+
+\1f
+File: binutils.info, Node: Index, Prev: c++filt, Up: Top
+
+Index
+*****
+
+* Menu:
+
+* .stab: objdump.
+* ar compatibility: ar.
+* nm compatibility: nm.
+* nm compatibility: nm.
+* nm format: nm.
+* nm format: nm.
+* size display format: size.
+* size number format: size.
+* all header information, object file: objdump.
+* ar: ar.
+* architecture: objdump.
+* architectures available: objdump.
+* archive contents: ranlib.
+* archive headers: objdump.
+* archives: ar.
+* c++filt: c++filt.
+* collections of files: ar.
+* compatibility, ar: ar.
+* contents of archive: ar-cmdline.
+* creating archives: ar-cmdline.
+* dates in archive: ar-cmdline.
+* debug symbols: objdump.
+* debugging symbols: nm.
+* deleting from archive: ar-cmdline.
+* demangling C++ symbols: c++filt.
+* demangling C++ symbols: nm.
+* disassembling object code: objdump.
+* discarding symbols: strip.
+* ELF object file format: objdump.
+* external symbols: nm.
+* external symbols: nm.
+* extract from archive: ar-cmdline.
+* file name: nm.
+* header information, all: objdump.
+* input file name: nm.
+* libraries: ar.
+* listings strings: strings.
+* machine instructions: objdump.
+* moving in archive: ar-cmdline.
+* MRI compatibility, ar: ar-scripts.
+* name duplication in archive: ar-cmdline.
+* name length: ar.
+* nm: nm.
+* objdump: objdump.
+* object code format: nm.
+* object code format: objdump.
+* object code format: size.
+* object file header: objdump.
+* object file information: objdump.
+* object file sections: objdump.
+* object formats available: objdump.
+* operations on archive: ar-cmdline.
+* printing from archive: ar-cmdline.
+* printing strings: strings.
+* quick append to archive: ar-cmdline.
+* radix for section sizes: size.
+* ranlib: ranlib.
+* relative placement in archive: ar-cmdline.
+* relocation entries, in object file: objdump.
+* removing symbols: strip.
+* repeated names in archive: ar-cmdline.
+* replacement in archive: ar-cmdline.
+* scripts, ar: ar-scripts.
+* section headers: objdump.
+* section information: objdump.
+* section sizes: size.
+* sections, full contents: objdump.
+* size: size.
+* sorting symbols: nm.
+* source file name: nm.
+* source filenames for object files: objdump.
+* stab: objdump.
+* strings: strings.
+* strings, printing: strings.
+* strip: strip.
+* symbol index: ranlib.
+* symbol index: ar.
+* symbol index, listing: nm.
+* symbol table entries, printing: objdump.
+* symbols: nm.
+* symbols, discarding: strip.
+* undefined symbols: nm.
+* Unix compatibility, ar: ar-cmdline.
+* updating an archive: ar-cmdline.
+* version: Top.
+* writing archive index: ar-cmdline.
+
+
+\1f
+Tag Table:
+Node: Top\7f918
+Node: ar\7f1769
+Node: ar-cmdline\7f3935
+Node: ar-scripts\7f10370
+Node: nm\7f16051
+Node: objcopy\7f19624
+Node: objdump\7f21994
+Node: ranlib\7f25572
+Node: size\7f26306
+Node: strings\7f28993
+Node: strip\7f30625
+Node: c++filt\7f32286
+Node: Index\7f34647
+\1f
+End Tag Table
--- /dev/null
+This is Info file as.info, produced by Makeinfo-1.55 from the input
+file ./as.texinfo.
+
+START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+* As:: The GNU assembler.
+END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+
+ This file documents the GNU Assembler "as".
+
+ Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+
+ Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
+manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
+preserved on all copies.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
+this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
+that the section entitled "GNU General Public License" is included
+exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting
+derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice
+identical to this one.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
+manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
+versions, except that the section entitled "GNU General Public License"
+may be included in a translation approved by the Free Software
+Foundation instead of in the original English.
+
+\1f
+Indirect:
+as.info-1: 1145
+as.info-2: 50499
+as.info-3: 99245
+as.info-4: 149134
+as.info-5: 184796
+as.info-6: 203973
+\1f
+Tag Table:
+(Indirect)
+Node: Top\7f1145
+Node: Overview\7f1833
+Node: Manual\7f5516
+Node: GNU Assembler\7f6455
+Node: Object Formats\7f7630
+Node: Command Line\7f8077
+Node: Input Files\7f9159
+Node: Object\7f11067
+Node: Errors\7f12012
+Node: Invoking\7f13209
+Node: a\7f14540
+Node: D\7f15637
+Node: f\7f15862
+Node: I\7f16367
+Node: K\7f16909
+Node: L\7f17208
+Node: o\7f17863
+Node: R\7f18314
+Node: v\7f19222
+Node: W\7f19473
+Node: Syntax\7f20045
+Node: Pre-processing\7f20637
+Node: Whitespace\7f22105
+Node: Comments\7f22496
+Node: Symbol Intro\7f24306
+Node: Statements\7f24989
+Node: Constants\7f27044
+Node: Characters\7f27670
+Node: Strings\7f28163
+Node: Chars\7f30187
+Node: Numbers\7f30928
+Node: Integers\7f31459
+Node: Bignums\7f32102
+Node: Flonums\7f32445
+Node: Sections\7f33977
+Node: Secs Background\7f34340
+Node: Ld Sections\7f38752
+Node: As Sections\7f41141
+Node: Sub-Sections\7f42031
+Node: bss\7f45080
+Node: Symbols\7f45664
+Node: Labels\7f46311
+Node: Setting Symbols\7f46735
+Node: Symbol Names\7f47101
+Node: Dot\7f50054
+Node: Symbol Attributes\7f50499
+Node: Symbol Value\7f51173
+Node: Symbol Type\7f52207
+Node: a.out Symbols\7f52586
+Node: Symbol Desc\7f52836
+Node: Symbol Other\7f53118
+Node: COFF Symbols\7f53274
+Node: Expressions\7f53883
+Node: Empty Exprs\7f54214
+Node: Integer Exprs\7f54559
+Node: Arguments\7f54949
+Node: Operators\7f56046
+Node: Prefix Ops\7f56372
+Node: Infix Ops\7f56691
+Node: Pseudo Ops\7f58494
+Node: Abort\7f61763
+Node: ABORT\7f62164
+Node: Align\7f62426
+Node: App-File\7f63123
+Node: Ascii\7f63660
+Node: Asciz\7f63965
+Node: Byte\7f64203
+Node: Comm\7f64435
+Node: Data\7f64992
+Node: Def\7f65302
+Node: Desc\7f65670
+Node: Dim\7f66167
+Node: Double\7f66558
+Node: Eject\7f66889
+Node: Else\7f67057
+Node: Endef\7f67346
+Node: Endif\7f67668
+Node: Equ\7f67919
+Node: Extern\7f68157
+Node: File\7f68409
+Node: Fill\7f69060
+Node: Float\7f70017
+Node: Global\7f70353
+Node: hword\7f70895
+Node: Ident\7f71216
+Node: If\7f71516
+Node: Include\7f72370
+Node: Int\7f72910
+Node: Lcomm\7f73288
+Node: Lflags\7f73762
+Node: Line\7f73949
+Node: Ln\7f75003
+Node: List\7f75147
+Node: Long\7f75744
+Node: Nolist\7f75915
+Node: Octa\7f76332
+Node: Org\7f76658
+Node: Psize\7f77946
+Node: Quad\7f78624
+Node: Sbttl\7f79065
+Node: Scl\7f79423
+Node: Section\7f79922
+Node: Set\7f80334
+Node: Short\7f81059
+Node: Single\7f81373
+Node: Size\7f81710
+Node: Space\7f82106
+Node: Stab\7f82643
+Node: Tag\7f84649
+Node: Text\7f85155
+Node: Title\7f85467
+Node: Type\7f85839
+Node: Val\7f86215
+Node: Word\7f86570
+Node: Deprecated\7f88443
+Node: Machine Dependencies\7f88677
+Node: Vax-Dependent\7f90020
+Node: Vax-Opts\7f90528
+Node: VAX-float\7f92810
+Node: VAX-directives\7f93431
+Node: VAX-opcodes\7f94280
+Node: VAX-branch\7f94658
+Node: VAX-operands\7f97159
+Node: VAX-no\7f97895
+Node: AMD29K-Dependent\7f98121
+Node: AMD29K Options\7f98527
+Node: AMD29K Syntax\7f98701
+Node: AMD29K-Chars\7f98939
+Node: AMD29K-Regs\7f99245
+Node: AMD29K Floating Point\7f100509
+Node: AMD29K Directives\7f100715
+Node: AMD29K Opcodes\7f102123
+Node: H8/300-Dependent\7f102459
+Node: H8/300 Options\7f102865
+Node: H8/300 Syntax\7f103046
+Node: H8/300-Chars\7f103333
+Node: H8/300-Regs\7f103617
+Node: H8/300-Addressing\7f104521
+Node: H8/300 Floating Point\7f105547
+Node: H8/300 Directives\7f105863
+Node: H8/300 Opcodes\7f106382
+Node: H8/500-Dependent\7f114735
+Node: H8/500 Options\7f115137
+Node: H8/500 Syntax\7f115318
+Node: H8/500-Chars\7f115605
+Node: H8/500-Regs\7f115896
+Node: H8/500-Addressing\7f116652
+Node: H8/500 Floating Point\7f117269
+Node: H8/500 Directives\7f117474
+Node: H8/500 Opcodes\7f117793
+Node: SH-Dependent\7f122906
+Node: SH Options\7f123290
+Node: SH Syntax\7f123455
+Node: SH-Chars\7f123714
+Node: SH-Regs\7f123993
+Node: SH-Addressing\7f124592
+Node: SH Floating Point\7f125486
+Node: SH Directives\7f125671
+Node: SH Opcodes\7f125876
+Node: i960-Dependent\7f130123
+Node: Options-i960\7f130513
+Node: Floating Point-i960\7f134399
+Node: Directives-i960\7f134656
+Node: Opcodes for i960\7f136676
+Node: callj-i960\7f137282
+Node: Compare-and-branch-i960\7f137765
+Node: M68K-Dependent\7f139652
+Node: M68K-Opts\7f140107
+Node: M68K-Syntax\7f141446
+Node: M68K-Moto-Syntax\7f143276
+Node: M68K-Float\7f144770
+Node: M68K-Directives\7f145556
+Node: M68K-opcodes\7f146094
+Node: M68K-Branch\7f146306
+Node: M68K-Chars\7f149134
+Node: Sparc-Dependent\7f149489
+Node: Sparc-Opts\7f149809
+Node: Sparc-Float\7f150743
+Node: Sparc-Directives\7f150925
+Node: i386-Dependent\7f151975
+Node: i386-Options\7f152570
+Node: i386-Syntax\7f152714
+Node: i386-Opcodes\7f154664
+Node: i386-Regs\7f156783
+Node: i386-prefixes\7f157924
+Node: i386-Memory\7f159593
+Node: i386-jumps\7f161871
+Node: i386-Float\7f162987
+Node: i386-Notes\7f164977
+Node: Z8000-Dependent\7f165818
+Node: Z8000 Options\7f166783
+Node: Z8000 Syntax\7f166958
+Node: Z8000-Chars\7f167234
+Node: Z8000-Regs\7f167452
+Node: Z8000-Addressing\7f168224
+Node: Z8000 Directives\7f169167
+Node: Z8000 Opcodes\7f170725
+Node: Acknowledgements\7f180661
+Node: Copying\7f184796
+Node: Index\7f203973
+\1f
+End Tag Table
--- /dev/null
+This is Info file as.info, produced by Makeinfo-1.55 from the input
+file ./as.texinfo.
+
+START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+* As:: The GNU assembler.
+END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+
+ This file documents the GNU Assembler "as".
+
+ Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+
+ Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
+manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
+preserved on all copies.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
+this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
+that the section entitled "GNU General Public License" is included
+exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting
+derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice
+identical to this one.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
+manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
+versions, except that the section entitled "GNU General Public License"
+may be included in a translation approved by the Free Software
+Foundation instead of in the original English.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Top, Next: Overview, Prev: (DIR), Up: (DIR)
+
+Using as
+********
+
+ This file is a user guide to the GNU assembler `as'.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Overview:: Overview
+* Invoking:: Command-Line Options
+* Syntax:: Syntax
+* Sections:: Sections and Relocation
+* Symbols:: Symbols
+* Expressions:: Expressions
+* Pseudo Ops:: Assembler Directives
+* Machine Dependencies:: Machine Dependent Features
+
+* Copying:: GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
+
+* Acknowledgements:: Who Did What
+
+* Index:: Index
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Overview, Next: Invoking, Prev: Top, Up: Top
+
+Overview
+********
+
+ Here is a brief summary of how to invoke `as'. For details, *note
+Comand-Line Options: Invoking..
+
+ as [ -a[dhlns] ] [ -D ] [ -f ]
+ [ -I PATH ] [ -K ] [ -L ]
+ [ -o OBJFILE ] [ -R ] [ -v ] [ -w ]
+ [ -Av6 | -Av7 | -Av8 | -Asparclite | -bump ]
+ [ -ACA | -ACA_A | -ACB | -ACC | -AKA | -AKB | -AKC | -AMC ]
+ [ -b ] [ -norelax ]
+ [ -l ] [ -m68000 | -m68010 | -m68020 | ... ]
+ [ -- | FILES ... ]
+
+`-a[dhlns]'
+ Turn on listings; `-ad', omit debugging pseudo-ops from listing,
+ `-ah', include high-level source, `-al', assembly listing, `-an',
+ no forms processing, `-as', symbols. These options may be
+ combined; *e.g.*, `-aln' for assembly listing without forms
+ processing. By itself, `-a' defaults to `-ahls' -- that is, all
+ listings turned on.
+
+`-D'
+ This option is accepted only for script compatibility with calls to
+ other assemblers; it has no effect on `as'.
+
+`-f'
+ "fast"--skip whitespace and comment preprocessing (assume source is
+ compiler output)
+
+`-I PATH'
+ Add PATH to the search list for `.include' directives
+
+`-K'
+ Issue warnings when difference tables altered for long
+ displacements.
+
+`-L'
+ Keep (in symbol table) local symbols, starting with `L'
+
+`-o OBJFILE'
+ Name the object-file output from `as'
+
+`-R'
+ Fold data section into text section
+
+`-v'
+ Announce `as' version
+
+`-W'
+ Suppress warning messages
+
+`-- | FILES ...'
+ Standard input, or source files to assemble.
+
+ The following options are available when as is configured for the
+Intel 80960 processor.
+
+`-ACA | -ACA_A | -ACB | -ACC | -AKA | -AKB | -AKC | -AMC'
+ Specify which variant of the 960 architecture is the target.
+
+`-b'
+ Add code to collect statistics about branches taken.
+
+`-norelax'
+ Do not alter compare-and-branch instructions for long
+ displacements; error if necessary.
+
+ The following options are available when as is configured for the
+Motorola 68000 series.
+
+`-l'
+ Shorten references to undefined symbols, to one word instead of
+ two.
+
+`-m68000 | -m68008 | -m68010 | -m68020 | -m68030 | -m68040'
+`| -m68302 | -m68331 | -m68332 | -m68333 | -m68340 | -mcpu32'
+ Specify what processor in the 68000 family is the target. The
+ default is normally the 68020, but this can be changed at
+ configuration time.
+
+`-m68881 | -m68882 | -mno-68881 | -mno-68882'
+ The target machine does (or does not) have a floating-point
+ coprocessor. The default is to assume a coprocessor for 68020,
+ 68030, and cpu32. Although the basic 68000 is not compatible with
+ the 68881, a combination of the two can be specified, since it's
+ possible to do emulation of the coprocessor instructions with the
+ main processor.
+
+`-m68851 | -mno-68851'
+ The target machine does (or does not) have a memory-management
+ unit coprocessor. The default is to assume an MMU for 68020 and
+ up.
+
+ The following options are available when `as' is configured for the
+SPARC architecture:
+
+`-Av6 | -Av7 | -Av8 | -Asparclite'
+ Explicitly select a variant of the SPARC architecture.
+
+`-bump'
+ Warn when the assembler switches to another architecture.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Manual:: Structure of this Manual
+* GNU Assembler:: as, the GNU Assembler
+* Object Formats:: Object File Formats
+* Command Line:: Command Line
+* Input Files:: Input Files
+* Object:: Output (Object) File
+* Errors:: Error and Warning Messages
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Manual, Next: GNU Assembler, Up: Overview
+
+Structure of this Manual
+========================
+
+ This manual is intended to describe what you need to know to use GNU
+`as'. We cover the syntax expected in source files, including notation
+for symbols, constants, and expressions; the directives that `as'
+understands; and of course how to invoke `as'.
+
+ This manual also describes some of the machine-dependent features of
+various flavors of the assembler.
+
+ On the other hand, this manual is *not* intended as an introduction
+to programming in assembly language--let alone programming in general!
+In a similar vein, we make no attempt to introduce the machine
+architecture; we do *not* describe the instruction set, standard
+mnemonics, registers or addressing modes that are standard to a
+particular architecture. You may want to consult the manufacturer's
+machine architecture manual for this information.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: GNU Assembler, Next: Object Formats, Prev: Manual, Up: Overview
+
+as, the GNU Assembler
+=====================
+
+ GNU `as' is really a family of assemblers. If you use (or have
+used) the GNU assembler on one architecture, you should find a fairly
+similar environment when you use it on another architecture. Each
+version has much in common with the others, including object file
+formats, most assembler directives (often called "pseudo-ops") and
+assembler syntax.
+
+ `as' is primarily intended to assemble the output of the GNU C
+compiler `gcc' for use by the linker `ld'. Nevertheless, we've tried
+to make `as' assemble correctly everything that other assemblers for
+the same machine would assemble. Any exceptions are documented
+explicitly (*note Machine Dependencies::.). This doesn't mean `as'
+always uses the same syntax as another assembler for the same
+architecture; for example, we know of several incompatible versions of
+680x0 assembly language syntax.
+
+ Unlike older assemblers, `as' is designed to assemble a source
+program in one pass of the source file. This has a subtle impact on the
+`.org' directive (*note `.org': Org.).
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Object Formats, Next: Command Line, Prev: GNU Assembler, Up: Overview
+
+Object File Formats
+===================
+
+ The GNU assembler can be configured to produce several alternative
+object file formats. For the most part, this does not affect how you
+write assembly language programs; but directives for debugging symbols
+are typically different in different file formats. *Note Symbol
+Attributes: Symbol Attributes.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Command Line, Next: Input Files, Prev: Object Formats, Up: Overview
+
+Command Line
+============
+
+ After the program name `as', the command line may contain options
+and file names. Options may appear in any order, and may be before,
+after, or between file names. The order of file names is significant.
+
+ `--' (two hyphens) by itself names the standard input file
+explicitly, as one of the files for `as' to assemble.
+
+ Except for `--' any command line argument that begins with a hyphen
+(`-') is an option. Each option changes the behavior of `as'. No
+option changes the way another option works. An option is a `-'
+followed by one or more letters; the case of the letter is important.
+All options are optional.
+
+ Some options expect exactly one file name to follow them. The file
+name may either immediately follow the option's letter (compatible with
+older assemblers) or it may be the next command argument (GNU
+standard). These two command lines are equivalent:
+
+ as -o my-object-file.o mumble.s
+ as -omy-object-file.o mumble.s
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Input Files, Next: Object, Prev: Command Line, Up: Overview
+
+Input Files
+===========
+
+ We use the phrase "source program", abbreviated "source", to
+describe the program input to one run of `as'. The program may be in
+one or more files; how the source is partitioned into files doesn't
+change the meaning of the source.
+
+ The source program is a concatenation of the text in all the files,
+in the order specified.
+
+ Each time you run `as' it assembles exactly one source program. The
+source program is made up of one or more files. (The standard input is
+also a file.)
+
+ You give `as' a command line that has zero or more input file names.
+The input files are read (from left file name to right). A command
+line argument (in any position) that has no special meaning is taken to
+be an input file name.
+
+ If you give `as' no file names it attempts to read one input file
+from the `as' standard input, which is normally your terminal. You may
+have to type ctl-D to tell `as' there is no more program to assemble.
+
+ Use `--' if you need to explicitly name the standard input file in
+your command line.
+
+ If the source is empty, `as' will produce a small, empty object file.
+
+Filenames and Line-numbers
+--------------------------
+
+ There are two ways of locating a line in the input file (or files)
+and either may be used in reporting error messages. One way refers to
+a line number in a physical file; the other refers to a line number in a
+"logical" file. *Note Error and Warning Messages: Errors.
+
+ "Physical files" are those files named in the command line given to
+`as'.
+
+ "Logical files" are simply names declared explicitly by assembler
+directives; they bear no relation to physical files. Logical file names
+help error messages reflect the original source file, when `as' source
+is itself synthesized from other files. *Note `.app-file': App-File.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Object, Next: Errors, Prev: Input Files, Up: Overview
+
+Output (Object) File
+====================
+
+ Every time you run `as' it produces an output file, which is your
+assembly language program translated into numbers. This file is the
+object file, named `b.out', if `as' is configured for the Intel 80960,
+or unless you tell `as' to give it another name by using the `-o'
+option. Conventionally, object file names end with `.o'. The default
+name of `a.out' is used for historical reasons: older assemblers were
+capable of assembling self-contained programs directly into a runnable
+program. (For some formats, this isn't currently possible, but it can
+be done for `a.out' format.)
+
+ The object file is meant for input to the linker `ld'. It contains
+assembled program code, information to help `ld' integrate the
+assembled program into a runnable file, and (optionally) symbolic
+information for the debugger.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Errors, Prev: Object, Up: Overview
+
+Error and Warning Messages
+==========================
+
+ `as' may write warnings and error messages to the standard error
+file (usually your terminal). This should not happen when a compiler
+runs `as' automatically. Warnings report an assumption made so that
+`as' could keep assembling a flawed program; errors report a grave
+problem that stops the assembly.
+
+ Warning messages have the format
+
+ file_name:NNN:Warning Message Text
+
+(where NNN is a line number). If a logical file name has been given
+(*note `.app-file': App-File.) it is used for the filename, otherwise
+the name of the current input file is used. If a logical line number
+was given (*note `.line': Line.) then it is used to calculate the
+number printed, otherwise the actual line in the current source file is
+printed. The message text is intended to be self explanatory (in the
+grand Unix tradition).
+
+ Error messages have the format
+ file_name:NNN:FATAL:Error Message Text
+ The file name and line number are derived as for warning messages.
+The actual message text may be rather less explanatory because many of
+them aren't supposed to happen.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Invoking, Next: Syntax, Prev: Overview, Up: Top
+
+Command-Line Options
+********************
+
+ This chapter describes command-line options available in *all*
+versions of the GNU assembler; *note Machine Dependencies::., for
+options specific to particular machine architectures.
+
+ If you are invoking `as' via the GNU C compiler (version 2), you can
+use the `-Wa' option to pass arguments through to the assembler. The
+assembler arguments must be separated from each other (and the `-Wa')
+by commas. For example:
+
+ gcc -c -g -O -Wa,-alh,-L file.c
+
+ will cause a listing to be emitted to standard output with high-level
+and assembly source.
+
+ Many compiler command-line options, such as `-R' and many
+machine-specific options, will be automatically be passed to the
+assembler by the compiler, so usually you do not need to use this `-Wa'
+mechanism.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* a:: -a[dhlns] enable listings
+* D:: -D for compatibility
+* f:: -f to work faster
+* I:: -I for .include search path
+
+* K:: -K for difference tables
+
+* L:: -L to retain local labels
+* o:: -o to name the object file
+* R:: -R to join data and text sections
+* v:: -v to announce version
+* W:: -W to suppress warnings
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: a, Next: D, Up: Invoking
+
+Enable Listings: `-a[dhlns]'
+============================
+
+ These options enable listing output from the assembler. By itself,
+`-a' requests high-level, assembly, and symbols listing. Other letters
+may be used to select specific options for the list: `-ah' requests a
+high-level language listing, `-al' requests an output-program assembly
+listing, and `-as' requests a symbol table listing. High-level
+listings require that a compiler debugging option like `-g' be used,
+and that assembly listings (`-al') be requested also.
+
+ The `-ad' option may be used to omit debugging pseudo-ops from the
+listing.
+
+ Once you have specified one of these options, you can further control
+listing output and its appearance using the directives `.list',
+`.nolist', `.psize', `.eject', `.title', and `.sbttl'. The `-an'
+option turns off all forms processing. If you do not request listing
+output with one of the `-a' options, the listing-control directives
+have no effect.
+
+ The letters after `-a' may be combined into one option, *e.g.*,
+`-aln'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: D, Next: f, Prev: a, Up: Invoking
+
+`-D'
+====
+
+ This option has no effect whatsoever, but it is accepted to make it
+more likely that scripts written for other assemblers will also work
+with `as'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: f, Next: I, Prev: D, Up: Invoking
+
+Work Faster: `-f'
+=================
+
+ `-f' should only be used when assembling programs written by a
+(trusted) compiler. `-f' stops the assembler from doing whitespace and
+comment pre-processing on the input file(s) before assembling them.
+*Note Pre-processing: Pre-processing.
+
+ *Warning:* if the files actually need to be pre-processed (if they
+ contain comments, for example), `as' will not work correctly if
+ `-f' is used.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: I, Next: K, Prev: f, Up: Invoking
+
+`.include' search path: `-I' PATH
+=================================
+
+ Use this option to add a PATH to the list of directories `as' will
+search for files specified in `.include' directives (*note `.include':
+Include.). You may use `-I' as many times as necessary to include a
+variety of paths. The current working directory is always searched
+first; after that, `as' searches any `-I' directories in the same order
+as they were specified (left to right) on the command line.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: K, Next: L, Prev: I, Up: Invoking
+
+Difference Tables: `-K'
+=======================
+
+ `as' sometimes alters the code emitted for directives of the form
+`.word SYM1-SYM2'; *note `.word': Word.. You can use the `-K' option
+if you want a warning issued when this is done.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: L, Next: o, Prev: K, Up: Invoking
+
+Include Local Labels: `-L'
+==========================
+
+ Labels beginning with `L' (upper case only) are called "local
+labels". *Note Symbol Names::. Normally you don't see such labels when
+debugging, because they are intended for the use of programs (like
+compilers) that compose assembler programs, not for your notice.
+Normally both `as' and `ld' discard such labels, so you don't normally
+debug with them.
+
+ This option tells `as' to retain those `L...' symbols in the object
+file. Usually if you do this you also tell the linker `ld' to preserve
+symbols whose names begin with `L'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: o, Next: R, Prev: L, Up: Invoking
+
+Name the Object File: `-o'
+==========================
+
+ There is always one object file output when you run `as'. By
+default it has the name `a.out' (or `b.out', for Intel 960 targets
+only). You use this option (which takes exactly one filename) to give
+the object file a different name.
+
+ Whatever the object file is called, `as' will overwrite any existing
+file of the same name.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: R, Next: v, Prev: o, Up: Invoking
+
+Join Data and Text Sections: `-R'
+=================================
+
+ `-R' tells `as' to write the object file as if all data-section data
+lives in the text section. This is only done at the very last moment:
+your binary data are the same, but data section parts are relocated
+differently. The data section part of your object file is zero bytes
+long because all its bytes are appended to the text section. (*Note
+Sections and Relocation: Sections.)
+
+ When you specify `-R' it would be possible to generate shorter
+address displacements (because we don't have to cross between text and
+data section). We refrain from doing this simply for compatibility with
+older versions of `as'. In future, `-R' may work this way.
+
+ When `as' is configured for COFF output, this option is only useful
+if you use sections named `.text' and `.data'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: v, Next: W, Prev: R, Up: Invoking
+
+Announce Version: `-v'
+======================
+
+ You can find out what version of as is running by including the
+option `-v' (which you can also spell as `-version') on the command
+line.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: W, Prev: v, Up: Invoking
+
+Suppress Warnings: `-W'
+=======================
+
+ `as' should never give a warning or error message when assembling
+compiler output. But programs written by people often cause `as' to
+give a warning that a particular assumption was made. All such
+warnings are directed to the standard error file. If you use this
+option, no warnings are issued. This option only affects the warning
+messages: it does not change any particular of how `as' assembles your
+file. Errors, which stop the assembly, are still reported.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Syntax, Next: Sections, Prev: Invoking, Up: Top
+
+Syntax
+******
+
+ This chapter describes the machine-independent syntax allowed in a
+source file. `as' syntax is similar to what many other assemblers use;
+it is inspired by the BSD 4.2 assembler, except that `as' does not
+assemble Vax bit-fields.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Pre-processing:: Pre-processing
+* Whitespace:: Whitespace
+* Comments:: Comments
+* Symbol Intro:: Symbols
+* Statements:: Statements
+* Constants:: Constants
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Pre-processing, Next: Whitespace, Up: Syntax
+
+Pre-Processing
+==============
+
+ The `as' internal pre-processor:
+ * adjusts and removes extra whitespace. It leaves one space or tab
+ before the keywords on a line, and turns any other whitespace on
+ the line into a single space.
+
+ * removes all comments, replacing them with a single space, or an
+ appropriate number of newlines.
+
+ * converts character constants into the appropriate numeric values.
+
+ Note that it does not do macro processing, include file handling, or
+anything else you may get from your C compiler's pre-processor. You can
+do include file processing with the `.include' directive (*note
+`.include': Include.). Other "CPP" style pre-processing can be done
+with the GNU C compiler, by giving the input file a `.S' suffix; see
+the compiler documentation for details.
+
+ Excess whitespace, comments, and character constants cannot be used
+in the portions of the input text that are not pre-processed.
+
+ If the first line of an input file is `#NO_APP' or the `-f' option
+is given, the input file will not be pre-processed. Within such an
+input file, parts of the file can be pre-processed by putting a line
+that says `#APP' before the text that should be pre-processed, and
+putting a line that says `#NO_APP' after them. This feature is mainly
+intend to support `asm' statements in compilers whose output normally
+does not need to be pre-processed.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Whitespace, Next: Comments, Prev: Pre-processing, Up: Syntax
+
+Whitespace
+==========
+
+ "Whitespace" is one or more blanks or tabs, in any order.
+Whitespace is used to separate symbols, and to make programs neater for
+people to read. Unless within character constants (*note Character
+Constants: Characters.), any whitespace means the same as exactly one
+space.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Comments, Next: Symbol Intro, Prev: Whitespace, Up: Syntax
+
+Comments
+========
+
+ There are two ways of rendering comments to `as'. In both cases the
+comment is equivalent to one space.
+
+ Anything from `/*' through the next `*/' is a comment. This means
+you may not nest these comments.
+
+ /*
+ The only way to include a newline ('\n') in a comment
+ is to use this sort of comment.
+ */
+
+ /* This sort of comment does not nest. */
+
+ Anything from the "line comment" character to the next newline is
+considered a comment and is ignored. The line comment character is `#'
+on the Vax; `#' on the i960; `!' on the SPARC; `|' on the 680x0; `;'
+for the AMD 29K family; `;' for the H8/300 family; `!' for the H8/500
+family; `!' for the Hitachi SH; `!' for the Z8000; see *Note Machine
+Dependencies::.
+
+ On some machines there are two different line comment characters.
+One will only begin a comment if it is the first non-whitespace
+character on a line, while the other will always begin a comment.
+
+ To be compatible with past assemblers, a special interpretation is
+given to lines that begin with `#'. Following the `#' an absolute
+expression (*note Expressions::.) is expected: this will be the
+logical line number of the next line. Then a string (*Note Strings::.)
+is allowed: if present it is a new logical file name. The rest of the
+line, if any, should be whitespace.
+
+ If the first non-whitespace characters on the line are not numeric,
+the line is ignored. (Just like a comment.)
+ # This is an ordinary comment.
+ # 42-6 "new_file_name" # New logical file name
+ # This is logical line # 36.
+ This feature is deprecated, and may disappear from future versions
+of `as'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Symbol Intro, Next: Statements, Prev: Comments, Up: Syntax
+
+Symbols
+=======
+
+ A "symbol" is one or more characters chosen from the set of all
+letters (both upper and lower case), digits and the three characters
+`_.$'. On most machines, you can also use `$' in symbol names;
+exceptions are noted in *Note Machine Dependencies::. No symbol may
+begin with a digit. Case is significant. There is no length limit:
+all characters are significant. Symbols are delimited by characters
+not in that set, or by the beginning of a file (since the source
+program must end with a newline, the end of a file is not a possible
+symbol delimiter). *Note Symbols::.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Statements, Next: Constants, Prev: Symbol Intro, Up: Syntax
+
+Statements
+==========
+
+ A "statement" ends at a newline character (`\n') or line separator
+character. (The line separator is usually `;', unless this conflicts
+with the comment character; *note Machine Dependencies::..) The
+newline or separator character is considered part of the preceding
+statement. Newlines and separators within character constants are an
+exception: they don't end statements.
+
+ It is an error to end any statement with end-of-file: the last
+character of any input file should be a newline.
+
+ You may write a statement on more than one line if you put a
+backslash (`\') immediately in front of any newlines within the
+statement. When `as' reads a backslashed newline both characters are
+ignored. You can even put backslashed newlines in the middle of symbol
+names without changing the meaning of your source program.
+
+ An empty statement is allowed, and may include whitespace. It is
+ignored.
+
+ A statement begins with zero or more labels, optionally followed by a
+key symbol which determines what kind of statement it is. The key
+symbol determines the syntax of the rest of the statement. If the
+symbol begins with a dot `.' then the statement is an assembler
+directive: typically valid for any computer. If the symbol begins with
+a letter the statement is an assembly language "instruction": it will
+assemble into a machine language instruction. Different versions of
+`as' for different computers will recognize different instructions. In
+fact, the same symbol may represent a different instruction in a
+different computer's assembly language.
+
+ A label is a symbol immediately followed by a colon (`:').
+Whitespace before a label or after a colon is permitted, but you may not
+have whitespace between a label's symbol and its colon. *Note Labels::.
+
+ label: .directive followed by something
+ another_label: # This is an empty statement.
+ instruction operand_1, operand_2, ...
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Constants, Prev: Statements, Up: Syntax
+
+Constants
+=========
+
+ A constant is a number, written so that its value is known by
+inspection, without knowing any context. Like this:
+ .byte 74, 0112, 092, 0x4A, 0X4a, 'J, '\J # All the same value.
+ .ascii "Ring the bell\7" # A string constant.
+ .octa 0x123456789abcdef0123456789ABCDEF0 # A bignum.
+ .float 0f-314159265358979323846264338327\
+ 95028841971.693993751E-40 # - pi, a flonum.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Characters:: Character Constants
+* Numbers:: Number Constants
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Characters, Next: Numbers, Up: Constants
+
+Character Constants
+-------------------
+
+ There are two kinds of character constants. A "character" stands
+for one character in one byte and its value may be used in numeric
+expressions. String constants (properly called string *literals*) are
+potentially many bytes and their values may not be used in arithmetic
+expressions.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Strings:: Strings
+* Chars:: Characters
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Strings, Next: Chars, Up: Characters
+
+Strings
+.......
+
+ A "string" is written between double-quotes. It may contain
+double-quotes or null characters. The way to get special characters
+into a string is to "escape" these characters: precede them with a
+backslash `\' character. For example `\\' represents one backslash:
+the first `\' is an escape which tells `as' to interpret the second
+character literally as a backslash (which prevents `as' from
+recognizing the second `\' as an escape character). The complete list
+of escapes follows.
+
+`\b'
+ Mnemonic for backspace; for ASCII this is octal code 010.
+
+`\f'
+ Mnemonic for FormFeed; for ASCII this is octal code 014.
+
+`\n'
+ Mnemonic for newline; for ASCII this is octal code 012.
+
+`\r'
+ Mnemonic for carriage-Return; for ASCII this is octal code 015.
+
+`\t'
+ Mnemonic for horizontal Tab; for ASCII this is octal code 011.
+
+`\ DIGIT DIGIT DIGIT'
+ An octal character code. The numeric code is 3 octal digits. For
+ compatibility with other Unix systems, 8 and 9 are accepted as
+ digits: for example, `\008' has the value 010, and `\009' the
+ value 011.
+
+`\\'
+ Represents one `\' character.
+
+`\"'
+ Represents one `"' character. Needed in strings to represent this
+ character, because an unescaped `"' would end the string.
+
+`\ ANYTHING-ELSE'
+ Any other character when escaped by `\' will give a warning, but
+ assemble as if the `\' was not present. The idea is that if you
+ used an escape sequence you clearly didn't want the literal
+ interpretation of the following character. However `as' has no
+ other interpretation, so `as' knows it is giving you the wrong
+ code and warns you of the fact.
+
+ Which characters are escapable, and what those escapes represent,
+varies widely among assemblers. The current set is what we think the
+BSD 4.2 assembler recognizes, and is a subset of what most C compilers
+recognize. If you are in doubt, don't use an escape sequence.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Chars, Prev: Strings, Up: Characters
+
+Characters
+..........
+
+ A single character may be written as a single quote immediately
+followed by that character. The same escapes apply to characters as to
+strings. So if you want to write the character backslash, you must
+write `'\\' where the first `\' escapes the second `\'. As you can
+see, the quote is an acute accent, not a grave accent. A newline
+immediately following an acute accent is taken as a literal character
+and does not count as the end of a statement. The value of a character
+constant in a numeric expression is the machine's byte-wide code for
+that character. `as' assumes your character code is ASCII: `'A' means
+65, `'B' means 66, and so on.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Numbers, Prev: Characters, Up: Constants
+
+Number Constants
+----------------
+
+ `as' distinguishes three kinds of numbers according to how they are
+stored in the target machine. *Integers* are numbers that would fit
+into an `int' in the C language. *Bignums* are integers, but they are
+stored in more than 32 bits. *Flonums* are floating point numbers,
+described below.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Integers:: Integers
+* Bignums:: Bignums
+* Flonums:: Flonums
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Integers, Next: Bignums, Up: Numbers
+
+Integers
+........
+
+ A binary integer is `0b' or `0B' followed by zero or more of the
+binary digits `01'.
+
+ An octal integer is `0' followed by zero or more of the octal digits
+(`01234567').
+
+ A decimal integer starts with a non-zero digit followed by zero or
+more digits (`0123456789').
+
+ A hexadecimal integer is `0x' or `0X' followed by one or more
+hexadecimal digits chosen from `0123456789abcdefABCDEF'.
+
+ Integers have the usual values. To denote a negative integer, use
+the prefix operator `-' discussed under expressions (*note Prefix
+Operators: Prefix Ops.).
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Bignums, Next: Flonums, Prev: Integers, Up: Numbers
+
+Bignums
+.......
+
+ A "bignum" has the same syntax and semantics as an integer except
+that the number (or its negative) takes more than 32 bits to represent
+in binary. The distinction is made because in some places integers are
+permitted while bignums are not.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Flonums, Prev: Bignums, Up: Numbers
+
+Flonums
+.......
+
+ A "flonum" represents a floating point number. The translation is
+indirect: a decimal floating point number from the text is converted by
+`as' to a generic binary floating point number of more than sufficient
+precision. This generic floating point number is converted to a
+particular computer's floating point format (or formats) by a portion
+of `as' specialized to that computer.
+
+ A flonum is written by writing (in order)
+ * The digit `0'.
+
+ * A letter, to tell `as' the rest of the number is a flonum. `e' is
+ recommended. Case is not important.
+
+ On the H8/300, H8/500, Hitachi SH, and AMD 29K architectures, the
+ letter must be one of the letters `DFPRSX' (in upper or lower
+ case).
+
+ On the Intel 960 architecture, the letter must be one of the
+ letters `DFT' (in upper or lower case).
+
+ * An optional sign: either `+' or `-'.
+
+ * An optional "integer part": zero or more decimal digits.
+
+ * An optional "fractional part": `.' followed by zero or more
+ decimal digits.
+
+ * An optional exponent, consisting of:
+
+ * An `E' or `e'.
+
+ * Optional sign: either `+' or `-'.
+
+ * One or more decimal digits.
+
+ At least one of the integer part or the fractional part must be
+present. The floating point number has the usual base-10 value.
+
+ `as' does all processing using integers. Flonums are computed
+independently of any floating point hardware in the computer running
+`as'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Sections, Next: Symbols, Prev: Syntax, Up: Top
+
+Sections and Relocation
+***********************
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Secs Background:: Background
+* Ld Sections:: ld Sections
+* As Sections:: as Internal Sections
+* Sub-Sections:: Sub-Sections
+* bss:: bss Section
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Secs Background, Next: Ld Sections, Up: Sections
+
+Background
+==========
+
+ Roughly, a section is a range of addresses, with no gaps; all data
+"in" those addresses is treated the same for some particular purpose.
+For example there may be a "read only" section.
+
+ The linker `ld' reads many object files (partial programs) and
+combines their contents to form a runnable program. When `as' emits an
+object file, the partial program is assumed to start at address 0.
+`ld' will assign the final addresses the partial program occupies, so
+that different partial programs don't overlap. This is actually an
+over-simplification, but it will suffice to explain how `as' uses
+sections.
+
+ `ld' moves blocks of bytes of your program to their run-time
+addresses. These blocks slide to their run-time addresses as rigid
+units; their length does not change and neither does the order of bytes
+within them. Such a rigid unit is called a *section*. Assigning
+run-time addresses to sections is called "relocation". It includes the
+task of adjusting mentions of object-file addresses so they refer to
+the proper run-time addresses. For the H8/300 and H8/500, and for the
+Hitachi SH, `as' pads sections if needed to ensure they end on a word
+(sixteen bit) boundary.
+
+ An object file written by `as' has at least three sections, any of
+which may be empty. These are named "text", "data" and "bss" sections.
+
+ When it generates COFF output, `as' can also generate whatever other
+named sections you specify using the `.section' directive (*note
+`.section': Section.). If you don't use any directives that place
+output in the `.text' or `.data' sections, these sections will still
+exist, but will be empty.
+
+ Within the object file, the text section starts at address `0', the
+data section follows, and the bss section follows the data section.
+
+ To let `ld' know which data will change when the sections are
+relocated, and how to change that data, `as' also writes to the object
+file details of the relocation needed. To perform relocation `ld' must
+know, each time an address in the object file is mentioned:
+ * Where in the object file is the beginning of this reference to an
+ address?
+
+ * How long (in bytes) is this reference?
+
+ * Which section does the address refer to? What is the numeric
+ value of
+ (ADDRESS) - (START-ADDRESS OF SECTION)?
+
+ * Is the reference to an address "Program-Counter relative"?
+
+ In fact, every address `as' ever uses is expressed as
+ (SECTION) + (OFFSET INTO SECTION)
+
+Further, every expression `as' computes is of this section-relative
+nature. "Absolute expression" means an expression with section
+"absolute" (*note Ld Sections::.). A "pass1 expression" means an
+expression with section "pass1" (*note as Internal Sections: As
+Sections.). In this manual we use the notation {SECNAME N} to mean
+"offset N into section SECNAME".
+
+ Apart from text, data and bss sections you need to know about the
+"absolute" section. When `ld' mixes partial programs, addresses in the
+absolute section remain unchanged. For example, address `{absolute 0}'
+is "relocated" to run-time address 0 by `ld'. Although two partial
+programs' data sections will not overlap addresses after linking, *by
+definition* their absolute sections will overlap. Address `{absolute
+239}' in one partial program will always be the same address when the
+program is running as address `{absolute 239}' in any other partial
+program.
+
+ The idea of sections is extended to the "undefined" section. Any
+address whose section is unknown at assembly time is by definition
+rendered {undefined U}--where U will be filled in later. Since numbers
+are always defined, the only way to generate an undefined address is to
+mention an undefined symbol. A reference to a named common block would
+be such a symbol: its value is unknown at assembly time so it has
+section *undefined*.
+
+ By analogy the word *section* is used to describe groups of sections
+in the linked program. `ld' puts all partial programs' text sections
+in contiguous addresses in the linked program. It is customary to
+refer to the *text section* of a program, meaning all the addresses of
+all partial program's text sections. Likewise for data and bss
+sections.
+
+ Some sections are manipulated by `ld'; others are invented for use
+of `as' and have no meaning except during assembly.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Ld Sections, Next: As Sections, Prev: Secs Background, Up: Sections
+
+ld Sections
+===========
+
+ `ld' deals with just four kinds of sections, summarized below.
+
+*named sections*
+*text section*
+*data section*
+ These sections hold your program. `as' and `ld' treat them as
+ separate but equal sections. Anything you can say of one section
+ is true another. When the program is running, however, it is
+ customary for the text section to be unalterable. The text
+ section is often shared among processes: it will contain
+ instructions, constants and the like. The data section of a
+ running program is usually alterable: for example, C variables
+ would be stored in the data section.
+
+*bss section*
+ This section contains zeroed bytes when your program begins
+ running. It is used to hold unitialized variables or common
+ storage. The length of each partial program's bss section is
+ important, but because it starts out containing zeroed bytes there
+ is no need to store explicit zero bytes in the object file. The
+ bss section was invented to eliminate those explicit zeros from
+ object files.
+
+*absolute section*
+ Address 0 of this section is always "relocated" to runtime address
+ 0. This is useful if you want to refer to an address that `ld'
+ must not change when relocating. In this sense we speak of
+ absolute addresses being "unrelocatable": they don't change during
+ relocation.
+
+*undefined section*
+ This "section" is a catch-all for address references to objects
+ not in the preceding sections.
+
+ An idealized example of three relocatable sections follows. The
+example uses the traditional section names `.text' and `.data'. Memory
+addresses are on the horizontal axis.
+
+ +-----+----+--+
+ partial program # 1: |ttttt|dddd|00|
+ +-----+----+--+
+
+ text data bss
+ seg. seg. seg.
+
+ +---+---+---+
+ partial program # 2: |TTT|DDD|000|
+ +---+---+---+
+
+ +--+---+-----+--+----+---+-----+~~
+ linked program: | |TTT|ttttt| |dddd|DDD|00000|
+ +--+---+-----+--+----+---+-----+~~
+
+ addresses: 0 ...
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: As Sections, Next: Sub-Sections, Prev: Ld Sections, Up: Sections
+
+as Internal Sections
+====================
+
+ These sections are meant only for the internal use of `as'. They
+have no meaning at run-time. You don't really need to know about these
+sections for most purposes; but they can be mentioned in `as' warning
+messages, so it might be helpful to have an idea of their meanings to
+`as'. These sections are used to permit the value of every expression
+in your assembly language program to be a section-relative address.
+
+ASSEMBLER-INTERNAL-LOGIC-ERROR!
+ An internal assembler logic error has been found. This means
+ there is a bug in the assembler.
+
+expr section
+ The assembler stores complex expression internally as combinations
+ of symbols. When it needs to represent an expression as a symbol,
+ it puts it in the expr section.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Sub-Sections, Next: bss, Prev: As Sections, Up: Sections
+
+Sub-Sections
+============
+
+ Assembled bytes conventionally fall into two sections: text and data.
+You may have separate groups of data in named sections that you want to
+end up near to each other in the object file, even though they are not
+contiguous in the assembler source. `as' allows you to use
+"subsections" for this purpose. Within each section, there can be
+numbered subsections with values from 0 to 8192. Objects assembled
+into the same subsection will be grouped with other objects in the same
+subsection when they are all put into the object file. For example, a
+compiler might want to store constants in the text section, but might
+not want to have them interspersed with the program being assembled.
+In this case, the compiler could issue a `.text 0' before each section
+of code being output, and a `.text 1' before each group of constants
+being output.
+
+ Subsections are optional. If you don't use subsections, everything
+will be stored in subsection number zero.
+
+ Each subsection is zero-padded up to a multiple of four bytes.
+(Subsections may be padded a different amount on different flavors of
+`as'.)
+
+ Subsections appear in your object file in numeric order, lowest
+numbered to highest. (All this to be compatible with other people's
+assemblers.) The object file contains no representation of subsections;
+`ld' and other programs that manipulate object files will see no trace
+of them. They just see all your text subsections as a text section,
+and all your data subsections as a data section.
+
+ To specify which subsection you want subsequent statements assembled
+into, use a numeric argument to specify it, in a `.text EXPRESSION' or
+a `.data EXPRESSION' statement. When generating COFF output, you can
+also use an extra subsection argument with arbitrary named sections:
+`.section NAME, EXPRESSION'. EXPRESSION should be an absolute
+expression. (*Note Expressions::.) If you just say `.text' then
+`.text 0' is assumed. Likewise `.data' means `.data 0'. Assembly
+begins in `text 0'. For instance:
+ .text 0 # The default subsection is text 0 anyway.
+ .ascii "This lives in the first text subsection. *"
+ .text 1
+ .ascii "But this lives in the second text subsection."
+ .data 0
+ .ascii "This lives in the data section,"
+ .ascii "in the first data subsection."
+ .text 0
+ .ascii "This lives in the first text section,"
+ .ascii "immediately following the asterisk (*)."
+
+ Each section has a "location counter" incremented by one for every
+byte assembled into that section. Because subsections are merely a
+convenience restricted to `as' there is no concept of a subsection
+location counter. There is no way to directly manipulate a location
+counter--but the `.align' directive will change it, and any label
+definition will capture its current value. The location counter of the
+section that statements are being assembled into is said to be the
+"active" location counter.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: bss, Prev: Sub-Sections, Up: Sections
+
+bss Section
+===========
+
+ The bss section is used for local common variable storage. You may
+allocate address space in the bss section, but you may not dictate data
+to load into it before your program executes. When your program starts
+running, all the contents of the bss section are zeroed bytes.
+
+ Addresses in the bss section are allocated with special directives;
+you may not assemble anything directly into the bss section. Hence
+there are no bss subsections. *Note `.comm': Comm, *note `.lcomm':
+Lcomm..
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Symbols, Next: Expressions, Prev: Sections, Up: Top
+
+Symbols
+*******
+
+ Symbols are a central concept: the programmer uses symbols to name
+things, the linker uses symbols to link, and the debugger uses symbols
+to debug.
+
+ *Warning:* `as' does not place symbols in the object file in the
+ same order they were declared. This may break some debuggers.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Labels:: Labels
+* Setting Symbols:: Giving Symbols Other Values
+* Symbol Names:: Symbol Names
+* Dot:: The Special Dot Symbol
+* Symbol Attributes:: Symbol Attributes
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Labels, Next: Setting Symbols, Up: Symbols
+
+Labels
+======
+
+ A "label" is written as a symbol immediately followed by a colon
+`:'. The symbol then represents the current value of the active
+location counter, and is, for example, a suitable instruction operand.
+You are warned if you use the same symbol to represent two different
+locations: the first definition overrides any other definitions.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Setting Symbols, Next: Symbol Names, Prev: Labels, Up: Symbols
+
+Giving Symbols Other Values
+===========================
+
+ A symbol can be given an arbitrary value by writing a symbol,
+followed by an equals sign `=', followed by an expression (*note
+Expressions::.). This is equivalent to using the `.set' directive.
+*Note `.set': Set.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Symbol Names, Next: Dot, Prev: Setting Symbols, Up: Symbols
+
+Symbol Names
+============
+
+ Symbol names begin with a letter or with one of `._'. On most
+machines, you can also use `$' in symbol names; exceptions are noted in
+*Note Machine Dependencies::. That character may be followed by any
+string of digits, letters, dollar signs (unless otherwise noted in
+*Note Machine Dependencies::), and underscores. For the AMD 29K
+family, `?' is also allowed in the body of a symbol name, though not at
+its beginning.
+
+ Case of letters is significant: `foo' is a different symbol name
+than `Foo'.
+
+ Each symbol has exactly one name. Each name in an assembly language
+program refers to exactly one symbol. You may use that symbol name any
+number of times in a program.
+
+Local Symbol Names
+------------------
+
+ Local symbols help compilers and programmers use names temporarily.
+There are ten local symbol names, which are re-used throughout the
+program. You may refer to them using the names `0' `1' ... `9'. To
+define a local symbol, write a label of the form `N:' (where N
+represents any digit). To refer to the most recent previous definition
+of that symbol write `Nb', using the same digit as when you defined the
+label. To refer to the next definition of a local label, write
+`Nf'--where N gives you a choice of 10 forward references. The `b'
+stands for "backwards" and the `f' stands for "forwards".
+
+ Local symbols are not emitted by the current GNU C compiler.
+
+ There is no restriction on how you can use these labels, but
+remember that at any point in the assembly you can refer to at most 10
+prior local labels and to at most 10 forward local labels.
+
+ Local symbol names are only a notation device. They are immediately
+transformed into more conventional symbol names before the assembler
+uses them. The symbol names stored in the symbol table, appearing in
+error messages and optionally emitted to the object file have these
+parts:
+
+`L'
+ All local labels begin with `L'. Normally both `as' and `ld'
+ forget symbols that start with `L'. These labels are used for
+ symbols you are never intended to see. If you give the `-L'
+ option then `as' will retain these symbols in the object file. If
+ you also instruct `ld' to retain these symbols, you may use them
+ in debugging.
+
+`DIGIT'
+ If the label is written `0:' then the digit is `0'. If the label
+ is written `1:' then the digit is `1'. And so on up through `9:'.
+
+\ 1A'
+ This unusual character is included so you don't accidentally invent
+ a symbol of the same name. The character has ASCII value `\001'.
+
+`*ordinal number*'
+ This is a serial number to keep the labels distinct. The first
+ `0:' gets the number `1'; The 15th `0:' gets the number `15';
+ *etc.*. Likewise for the other labels `1:' through `9:'.
+
+ For instance, the first `1:' is named `L\ 1A1', the 44th `3:' is named
+`L\ 1A44'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Dot, Next: Symbol Attributes, Prev: Symbol Names, Up: Symbols
+
+The Special Dot Symbol
+======================
+
+ The special symbol `.' refers to the current address that `as' is
+assembling into. Thus, the expression `melvin: .long .' will cause
+`melvin' to contain its own address. Assigning a value to `.' is
+treated the same as a `.org' directive. Thus, the expression `.=.+4'
+is the same as saying `.space 4'.
+
--- /dev/null
+This is Info file as.info, produced by Makeinfo-1.55 from the input
+file ./as.texinfo.
+
+START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+* As:: The GNU assembler.
+END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+
+ This file documents the GNU Assembler "as".
+
+ Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+
+ Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
+manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
+preserved on all copies.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
+this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
+that the section entitled "GNU General Public License" is included
+exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting
+derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice
+identical to this one.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
+manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
+versions, except that the section entitled "GNU General Public License"
+may be included in a translation approved by the Free Software
+Foundation instead of in the original English.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Symbol Attributes, Prev: Dot, Up: Symbols
+
+Symbol Attributes
+=================
+
+ Every symbol has, as well as its name, the attributes "Value" and
+"Type". Depending on output format, symbols can also have auxiliary
+attributes.
+
+ If you use a symbol without defining it, `as' assumes zero for all
+these attributes, and probably won't warn you. This makes the symbol
+an externally defined symbol, which is generally what you would want.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Symbol Value:: Value
+* Symbol Type:: Type
+
+
+* a.out Symbols:: Symbol Attributes: `a.out'
+
+* COFF Symbols:: Symbol Attributes for COFF
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Symbol Value, Next: Symbol Type, Up: Symbol Attributes
+
+Value
+-----
+
+ The value of a symbol is (usually) 32 bits. For a symbol which
+labels a location in the text, data, bss or absolute sections the value
+is the number of addresses from the start of that section to the label.
+Naturally for text, data and bss sections the value of a symbol changes
+as `ld' changes section base addresses during linking. Absolute
+symbols' values do not change during linking: that is why they are
+called absolute.
+
+ The value of an undefined symbol is treated in a special way. If it
+is 0 then the symbol is not defined in this assembler source program,
+and `ld' will try to determine its value from other programs it is
+linked with. You make this kind of symbol simply by mentioning a symbol
+name without defining it. A non-zero value represents a `.comm' common
+declaration. The value is how much common storage to reserve, in bytes
+(addresses). The symbol refers to the first address of the allocated
+storage.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Symbol Type, Next: a.out Symbols, Prev: Symbol Value, Up: Symbol Attributes
+
+Type
+----
+
+ The type attribute of a symbol contains relocation (section)
+information, any flag settings indicating that a symbol is external, and
+(optionally), other information for linkers and debuggers. The exact
+format depends on the object-code output format in use.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: a.out Symbols, Next: COFF Symbols, Prev: Symbol Type, Up: Symbol Attributes
+
+Symbol Attributes: `a.out'
+--------------------------
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Symbol Desc:: Descriptor
+* Symbol Other:: Other
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Symbol Desc, Next: Symbol Other, Up: a.out Symbols
+
+Descriptor
+..........
+
+ This is an arbitrary 16-bit value. You may establish a symbol's
+descriptor value by using a `.desc' statement (*note `.desc': Desc.).
+A descriptor value means nothing to `as'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Symbol Other, Prev: Symbol Desc, Up: a.out Symbols
+
+Other
+.....
+
+ This is an arbitrary 8-bit value. It means nothing to `as'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: COFF Symbols, Prev: a.out Symbols, Up: Symbol Attributes
+
+Symbol Attributes for COFF
+--------------------------
+
+ The COFF format supports a multitude of auxiliary symbol attributes;
+like the primary symbol attributes, they are set between `.def' and
+`.endef' directives.
+
+Primary Attributes
+..................
+
+ The symbol name is set with `.def'; the value and type,
+respectively, with `.val' and `.type'.
+
+Auxiliary Attributes
+....................
+
+ The `as' directives `.dim', `.line', `.scl', `.size', and `.tag' can
+generate auxiliary symbol table information for COFF.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Expressions, Next: Pseudo Ops, Prev: Symbols, Up: Top
+
+Expressions
+***********
+
+ An "expression" specifies an address or numeric value. Whitespace
+may precede and/or follow an expression.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Empty Exprs:: Empty Expressions
+* Integer Exprs:: Integer Expressions
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Empty Exprs, Next: Integer Exprs, Up: Expressions
+
+Empty Expressions
+=================
+
+ An empty expression has no value: it is just whitespace or null.
+Wherever an absolute expression is required, you may omit the
+expression and `as' will assume a value of (absolute) 0. This is
+compatible with other assemblers.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Integer Exprs, Prev: Empty Exprs, Up: Expressions
+
+Integer Expressions
+===================
+
+ An "integer expression" is one or more *arguments* delimited by
+*operators*.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Arguments:: Arguments
+* Operators:: Operators
+* Prefix Ops:: Prefix Operators
+* Infix Ops:: Infix Operators
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Arguments, Next: Operators, Up: Integer Exprs
+
+Arguments
+---------
+
+ "Arguments" are symbols, numbers or subexpressions. In other
+contexts arguments are sometimes called "arithmetic operands". In this
+manual, to avoid confusing them with the "instruction operands" of the
+machine language, we use the term "argument" to refer to parts of
+expressions only, reserving the word "operand" to refer only to machine
+instruction operands.
+
+ Symbols are evaluated to yield {SECTION NNN} where SECTION is one of
+text, data, bss, absolute, or undefined. NNN is a signed, 2's
+complement 32 bit integer.
+
+ Numbers are usually integers.
+
+ A number can be a flonum or bignum. In this case, you are warned
+that only the low order 32 bits are used, and `as' pretends these 32
+bits are an integer. You may write integer-manipulating instructions
+that act on exotic constants, compatible with other assemblers.
+
+ Subexpressions are a left parenthesis `(' followed by an integer
+expression, followed by a right parenthesis `)'; or a prefix operator
+followed by an argument.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Operators, Next: Prefix Ops, Prev: Arguments, Up: Integer Exprs
+
+Operators
+---------
+
+ "Operators" are arithmetic functions, like `+' or `%'. Prefix
+operators are followed by an argument. Infix operators appear between
+their arguments. Operators may be preceded and/or followed by
+whitespace.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Prefix Ops, Next: Infix Ops, Prev: Operators, Up: Integer Exprs
+
+Prefix Operator
+---------------
+
+ `as' has the following "prefix operators". They each take one
+argument, which must be absolute.
+
+`-'
+ "Negation". Two's complement negation.
+
+`~'
+ "Complementation". Bitwise not.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Infix Ops, Prev: Prefix Ops, Up: Integer Exprs
+
+Infix Operators
+---------------
+
+ "Infix operators" take two arguments, one on either side. Operators
+have precedence, but operations with equal precedence are performed left
+to right. Apart from `+' or `-', both arguments must be absolute, and
+the result is absolute.
+
+ 1. Highest Precedence
+
+ `*'
+ "Multiplication".
+
+ `/'
+ "Division". Truncation is the same as the C operator `/'
+
+ `%'
+ "Remainder".
+
+ `<'
+ `<<'
+ "Shift Left". Same as the C operator `<<'.
+
+ `>'
+ `>>'
+ "Shift Right". Same as the C operator `>>'.
+
+ 2. Intermediate precedence
+
+ `|'
+ "Bitwise Inclusive Or".
+
+ `&'
+ "Bitwise And".
+
+ `^'
+ "Bitwise Exclusive Or".
+
+ `!'
+ "Bitwise Or Not".
+
+ 3. Lowest Precedence
+
+ `+'
+ "Addition". If either argument is absolute, the result has
+ the section of the other argument. If either argument is
+ pass1 or undefined, the result is pass1. Otherwise `+' is
+ illegal.
+
+ `-'
+ "Subtraction". If the right argument is absolute, the result
+ has the section of the left argument. If either argument is
+ pass1 the result is pass1. If either argument is undefined
+ the result is difference section. If both arguments are in
+ the same section, the result is absolute--provided that
+ section is one of text, data or bss. Otherwise subtraction
+ is illegal.
+
+ The sense of the rule for addition is that it's only meaningful to
+add the *offsets* in an address; you can only have a defined section in
+one of the two arguments.
+
+ Similarly, you can't subtract quantities from two different sections.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Pseudo Ops, Next: Machine Dependencies, Prev: Expressions, Up: Top
+
+Assembler Directives
+********************
+
+ All assembler directives have names that begin with a period (`.').
+The rest of the name is letters, usually in lower case.
+
+ This chapter discusses directives that are available regardless of
+the target machine configuration for the GNU assembler. Some machine
+configurations provide additional directives. *Note Machine
+Dependencies::.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Abort:: `.abort'
+
+* ABORT:: `.ABORT'
+
+* Align:: `.align ABS-EXPR , ABS-EXPR'
+* App-File:: `.app-file STRING'
+* Ascii:: `.ascii "STRING"'...
+* Asciz:: `.asciz "STRING"'...
+* Byte:: `.byte EXPRESSIONS'
+* Comm:: `.comm SYMBOL , LENGTH '
+* Data:: `.data SUBSECTION'
+
+* Def:: `.def NAME'
+
+* Desc:: `.desc SYMBOL, ABS-EXPRESSION'
+
+* Dim:: `.dim'
+
+* Double:: `.double FLONUMS'
+* Eject:: `.eject'
+* Else:: `.else'
+
+* Endef:: `.endef'
+
+* Endif:: `.endif'
+* Equ:: `.equ SYMBOL, EXPRESSION'
+* Extern:: `.extern'
+
+* File:: `.file STRING'
+
+* Fill:: `.fill REPEAT , SIZE , VALUE'
+* Float:: `.float FLONUMS'
+* Global:: `.global SYMBOL', `.globl SYMBOL'
+* hword:: `.hword EXPRESSIONS'
+* Ident:: `.ident'
+* If:: `.if ABSOLUTE EXPRESSION'
+* Include:: `.include "FILE"'
+* Int:: `.int EXPRESSIONS'
+* Lcomm:: `.lcomm SYMBOL , LENGTH'
+* Lflags:: `.lflags'
+
+* Line:: `.line LINE-NUMBER'
+
+* Ln:: `.ln LINE-NUMBER'
+* List:: `.list'
+* Long:: `.long EXPRESSIONS'
+
+* Nolist:: `.nolist'
+* Octa:: `.octa BIGNUMS'
+* Org:: `.org NEW-LC , FILL'
+* Psize:: `.psize LINES, COLUMNS'
+* Quad:: `.quad BIGNUMS'
+* Sbttl:: `.sbttl "SUBHEADING"'
+
+* Scl:: `.scl CLASS'
+
+* Section:: `.section NAME, SUBSECTION'
+
+* Set:: `.set SYMBOL, EXPRESSION'
+* Short:: `.short EXPRESSIONS'
+* Single:: `.single FLONUMS'
+
+* Size:: `.size'
+
+* Space:: `.space SIZE , FILL'
+
+* Stab:: `.stabd, .stabn, .stabs'
+
+* Tag:: `.tag STRUCTNAME'
+
+* Text:: `.text SUBSECTION'
+* Title:: `.title "HEADING"'
+
+* Type:: `.type INT'
+* Val:: `.val ADDR'
+
+* Word:: `.word EXPRESSIONS'
+* Deprecated:: Deprecated Directives
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Abort, Next: ABORT, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.abort'
+========
+
+ This directive stops the assembly immediately. It is for
+compatibility with other assemblers. The original idea was that the
+assembly language source would be piped into the assembler. If the
+sender of the source quit, it could use this directive tells `as' to
+quit also. One day `.abort' will not be supported.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: ABORT, Next: Align, Prev: Abort, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.ABORT'
+========
+
+ When producing COFF output, `as' accepts this directive as a synonym
+for `.abort'.
+
+ When producing `b.out' output, `as' accepts this directive, but
+ignores it.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Align, Next: App-File, Prev: ABORT, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.align ABS-EXPR , ABS-EXPR'
+============================
+
+ Pad the location counter (in the current subsection) to a particular
+storage boundary. The first expression (which must be absolute) is the
+number of low-order zero bits the location counter will have after
+advancement. For example `.align 3' will advance the location counter
+until it a multiple of 8. If the location counter is already a
+multiple of 8, no change is needed.
+
+ The second expression (also absolute) gives the value to be stored in
+the padding bytes. It (and the comma) may be omitted. If it is
+omitted, the padding bytes are zero.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: App-File, Next: Ascii, Prev: Align, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.app-file STRING'
+==================
+
+ `.app-file' (which may also be spelled `.file') tells `as' that we
+are about to start a new logical file. STRING is the new file name.
+In general, the filename is recognized whether or not it is surrounded
+by quotes `"'; but if you wish to specify an empty file name is
+permitted, you must give the quotes-`""'. This statement may go away in
+future: it is only recognized to be compatible with old `as' programs.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Ascii, Next: Asciz, Prev: App-File, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.ascii "STRING"'...
+====================
+
+ `.ascii' expects zero or more string literals (*note Strings::.)
+separated by commas. It assembles each string (with no automatic
+trailing zero byte) into consecutive addresses.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Asciz, Next: Byte, Prev: Ascii, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.asciz "STRING"'...
+====================
+
+ `.asciz' is just like `.ascii', but each string is followed by a
+zero byte. The "z" in `.asciz' stands for "zero".
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Byte, Next: Comm, Prev: Asciz, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.byte EXPRESSIONS'
+===================
+
+ `.byte' expects zero or more expressions, separated by commas. Each
+expression is assembled into the next byte.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Comm, Next: Data, Prev: Byte, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.comm SYMBOL , LENGTH '
+========================
+
+ `.comm' declares a named common area in the bss section. Normally
+`ld' reserves memory addresses for it during linking, so no partial
+program defines the location of the symbol. Use `.comm' to tell `ld'
+that it must be at least LENGTH bytes long. `ld' will allocate space
+for each `.comm' symbol that is at least as long as the longest `.comm'
+request in any of the partial programs linked. LENGTH is an absolute
+expression.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Data, Next: Def, Prev: Comm, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.data SUBSECTION'
+==================
+
+ `.data' tells `as' to assemble the following statements onto the end
+of the data subsection numbered SUBSECTION (which is an absolute
+expression). If SUBSECTION is omitted, it defaults to zero.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Def, Next: Desc, Prev: Data, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.def NAME'
+===========
+
+ Begin defining debugging information for a symbol NAME; the
+definition extends until the `.endef' directive is encountered.
+
+ This directive is only observed when `as' is configured for COFF
+format output; when producing `b.out', `.def' is recognized, but
+ignored.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Desc, Next: Dim, Prev: Def, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.desc SYMBOL, ABS-EXPRESSION'
+==============================
+
+ This directive sets the descriptor of the symbol (*note Symbol
+Attributes::.) to the low 16 bits of an absolute expression.
+
+ The `.desc' directive is not available when `as' is configured for
+COFF output; it is only for `a.out' or `b.out' object format. For the
+sake of compatibility, `as' will accept it, but produce no output, when
+configured for COFF.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Dim, Next: Double, Prev: Desc, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.dim'
+======
+
+ This directive is generated by compilers to include auxiliary
+debugging information in the symbol table. It is only permitted inside
+`.def'/`.endef' pairs.
+
+ `.dim' is only meaningful when generating COFF format output; when
+`as' is generating `b.out', it accepts this directive but ignores it.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Double, Next: Eject, Prev: Dim, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.double FLONUMS'
+=================
+
+ `.double' expects zero or more flonums, separated by commas. It
+assembles floating point numbers. The exact kind of floating point
+numbers emitted depends on how `as' is configured. *Note Machine
+Dependencies::.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Eject, Next: Else, Prev: Double, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.eject'
+========
+
+ Force a page break at this point, when generating assembly listings.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Else, Next: Endef, Prev: Eject, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.else'
+=======
+
+ `.else' is part of the `as' support for conditional assembly; *note
+`.if': If.. It marks the beginning of a section of code to be
+assembled if the condition for the preceding `.if' was false.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Endef, Next: Endif, Prev: Else, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.endef'
+========
+
+ This directive flags the end of a symbol definition begun with
+`.def'.
+
+ `.endef' is only meaningful when generating COFF format output; if
+`as' is configured to generate `b.out', it accepts this directive but
+ignores it.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Endif, Next: Equ, Prev: Endef, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.endif'
+========
+
+ `.endif' is part of the `as' support for conditional assembly; it
+marks the end of a block of code that is only assembled conditionally.
+*Note `.if': If.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Equ, Next: Extern, Prev: Endif, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.equ SYMBOL, EXPRESSION'
+=========================
+
+ This directive sets the value of SYMBOL to EXPRESSION. It is
+synonymous with `.set'; *note `.set': Set..
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Extern, Next: File, Prev: Equ, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.extern'
+=========
+
+ `.extern' is accepted in the source program--for compatibility with
+other assemblers--but it is ignored. `as' treats all undefined symbols
+as external.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: File, Next: Fill, Prev: Extern, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.file STRING'
+==============
+
+ `.file' (which may also be spelled `.app-file') tells `as' that we
+are about to start a new logical file. STRING is the new file name.
+In general, the filename is recognized whether or not it is surrounded
+by quotes `"'; but if you wish to specify an empty file name, you must
+give the quotes-`""'. This statement may go away in future: it is only
+recognized to be compatible with old `as' programs. In some
+configurations of `as', `.file' has already been removed to avoid
+conflicts with other assemblers. *Note Machine Dependencies::.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Fill, Next: Float, Prev: File, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.fill REPEAT , SIZE , VALUE'
+=============================
+
+ RESULT, SIZE and VALUE are absolute expressions. This emits REPEAT
+copies of SIZE bytes. REPEAT may be zero or more. SIZE may be zero or
+more, but if it is more than 8, then it is deemed to have the value 8,
+compatible with other people's assemblers. The contents of each REPEAT
+bytes is taken from an 8-byte number. The highest order 4 bytes are
+zero. The lowest order 4 bytes are VALUE rendered in the byte-order of
+an integer on the computer `as' is assembling for. Each SIZE bytes in
+a repetition is taken from the lowest order SIZE bytes of this number.
+Again, this bizarre behavior is compatible with other people's
+assemblers.
+
+ SIZE and VALUE are optional. If the second comma and VALUE are
+absent, VALUE is assumed zero. If the first comma and following tokens
+are absent, SIZE is assumed to be 1.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Float, Next: Global, Prev: Fill, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.float FLONUMS'
+================
+
+ This directive assembles zero or more flonums, separated by commas.
+It has the same effect as `.single'. The exact kind of floating point
+numbers emitted depends on how `as' is configured. *Note Machine
+Dependencies::.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Global, Next: hword, Prev: Float, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.global SYMBOL', `.globl SYMBOL'
+=================================
+
+ `.global' makes the symbol visible to `ld'. If you define SYMBOL in
+your partial program, its value is made available to other partial
+programs that are linked with it. Otherwise, SYMBOL will take its
+attributes from a symbol of the same name from another partial program
+it is linked with.
+
+ Both spellings (`.globl' and `.global') are accepted, for
+compatibility with other assemblers.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: hword, Next: Ident, Prev: Global, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.hword EXPRESSIONS'
+====================
+
+ This expects zero or more EXPRESSIONS, and emits a 16 bit number for
+each.
+
+ This directive is a synonym for `.short'; depending on the target
+architecture, it may also be a synonym for `.word'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Ident, Next: If, Prev: hword, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.ident'
+========
+
+ This directive is used by some assemblers to place tags in object
+files. `as' simply accepts the directive for source-file compatibility
+with such assemblers, but does not actually emit anything for it.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: If, Next: Include, Prev: Ident, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.if ABSOLUTE EXPRESSION'
+=========================
+
+ `.if' marks the beginning of a section of code which is only
+considered part of the source program being assembled if the argument
+(which must be an ABSOLUTE EXPRESSION) is non-zero. The end of the
+conditional section of code must be marked by `.endif' (*note `.endif':
+Endif.); optionally, you may include code for the alternative
+condition, flagged by `.else' (*note `.else': Else..
+
+ The following variants of `.if' are also supported:
+`.ifdef SYMBOL'
+ Assembles the following section of code if the specified SYMBOL
+ has been defined.
+
+`.ifndef SYMBOL'
+`ifnotdef SYMBOL'
+ Assembles the following section of code if the specified SYMBOL
+ has not been defined. Both spelling variants are equivalent.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Include, Next: Int, Prev: If, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.include "FILE"'
+=================
+
+ This directive provides a way to include supporting files at
+specified points in your source program. The code from FILE is
+assembled as if it followed the point of the `.include'; when the end
+of the included file is reached, assembly of the original file
+continues. You can control the search paths used with the `-I'
+command-line option (*note Command-Line Options: Invoking.). Quotation
+marks are required around FILE.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Int, Next: Lcomm, Prev: Include, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.int EXPRESSIONS'
+==================
+
+ Expect zero or more EXPRESSIONS, of any section, separated by
+commas. For each expression, emit a 32-bit number that will, at run
+time, be the value of that expression. The byte order of the
+expression depends on what kind of computer will run the program.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Lcomm, Next: Lflags, Prev: Int, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.lcomm SYMBOL , LENGTH'
+========================
+
+ Reserve LENGTH (an absolute expression) bytes for a local common
+denoted by SYMBOL. The section and value of SYMBOL are those of the
+new local common. The addresses are allocated in the bss section, so
+at run-time the bytes will start off zeroed. SYMBOL is not declared
+global (*note `.global': Global.), so is normally not visible to `ld'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Lflags, Next: Line, Prev: Lcomm, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.lflags'
+=========
+
+ `as' accepts this directive, for compatibility with other
+assemblers, but ignores it.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Line, Next: Ln, Prev: Lflags, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.line LINE-NUMBER'
+===================
+
+ Tell `as' to change the logical line number. LINE-NUMBER must be an
+absolute expression. The next line will have that logical line number.
+So any other statements on the current line (after a statement
+separator character) will be reported as on logical line number
+LINE-NUMBER - 1. One day this directive will be unsupported: it is
+used only for compatibility with existing assembler programs.
+
+ *Warning:* In the AMD29K configuration of as, this command is only
+available with the name `.ln', rather than as either `.line' or `.ln'.
+
+ Even though this is a directive associated with the `a.out' or
+`b.out' object-code formats, `as' will still recognize it when
+producing COFF output, and will treat `.line' as though it were the
+COFF `.ln' *if* it is found outside a `.def'/`.endef' pair.
+
+ Inside a `.def', `.line' is, instead, one of the directives used by
+compilers to generate auxiliary symbol information for debugging.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Ln, Next: List, Prev: Line, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.ln LINE-NUMBER'
+=================
+
+ `.ln' is a synonym for `.line'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: List, Next: Long, Prev: Ln, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.list'
+=======
+
+ Control (in conjunction with the `.nolist' directive) whether or not
+assembly listings are generated. These two directives maintain an
+internal counter (which is zero initially). `.list' increments the
+counter, and `.nolist' decrements it. Assembly listings are generated
+whenever the counter is greater than zero.
+
+ By default, listings are disabled. When you enable them (with the
+`-a' command line option; *note Command-Line Options: Invoking.), the
+initial value of the listing counter is one.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Long, Next: Nolist, Prev: List, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.long EXPRESSIONS'
+===================
+
+ `.long' is the same as `.int', *note `.int': Int..
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Nolist, Next: Octa, Prev: Long, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.nolist'
+=========
+
+ Control (in conjunction with the `.list' directive) whether or not
+assembly listings are generated. These two directives maintain an
+internal counter (which is zero initially). `.list' increments the
+counter, and `.nolist' decrements it. Assembly listings are generated
+whenever the counter is greater than zero.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Octa, Next: Org, Prev: Nolist, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.octa BIGNUMS'
+===============
+
+ This directive expects zero or more bignums, separated by commas.
+For each bignum, it emits a 16-byte integer.
+
+ The term "octa" comes from contexts in which a "word" is two bytes;
+hence *octa*-word for 16 bytes.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Org, Next: Psize, Prev: Octa, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.org NEW-LC , FILL'
+====================
+
+ `.org' will advance the location counter of the current section to
+NEW-LC. NEW-LC is either an absolute expression or an expression with
+the same section as the current subsection. That is, you can't use
+`.org' to cross sections: if NEW-LC has the wrong section, the `.org'
+directive is ignored. To be compatible with former assemblers, if the
+section of NEW-LC is absolute, `as' will issue a warning, then pretend
+the section of NEW-LC is the same as the current subsection.
+
+ `.org' may only increase the location counter, or leave it
+unchanged; you cannot use `.org' to move the location counter backwards.
+
+ Because `as' tries to assemble programs in one pass NEW-LC may not
+be undefined. If you really detest this restriction we eagerly await a
+chance to share your improved assembler.
+
+ Beware that the origin is relative to the start of the section, not
+to the start of the subsection. This is compatible with other people's
+assemblers.
+
+ When the location counter (of the current subsection) is advanced,
+the intervening bytes are filled with FILL which should be an absolute
+expression. If the comma and FILL are omitted, FILL defaults to zero.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Psize, Next: Quad, Prev: Org, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.psize LINES , COLUMNS'
+========================
+
+ Use this directive to declare the number of lines--and, optionally,
+the number of columns--to use for each page, when generating listings.
+
+ If you don't use `.psize', listings will use a default line-count of
+60. You may omit the comma and COLUMNS specification; the default
+width is 200 columns.
+
+ `as' will generate formfeeds whenever the specified number of lines
+is exceeded (or whenever you explicitly request one, using `.eject').
+
+ If you specify LINES as `0', no formfeeds are generated save those
+explicitly specified with `.eject'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Quad, Next: Sbttl, Prev: Psize, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.quad BIGNUMS'
+===============
+
+ `.quad' expects zero or more bignums, separated by commas. For each
+bignum, it emits an 8-byte integer. If the bignum won't fit in 8
+bytes, it prints a warning message; and just takes the lowest order 8
+bytes of the bignum.
+
+ The term "quad" comes from contexts in which a "word" is two bytes;
+hence *quad*-word for 8 bytes.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Sbttl, Next: Scl, Prev: Quad, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.sbttl "SUBHEADING"'
+=====================
+
+ Use SUBHEADING as the title (third line, immediately after the title
+line) when generating assembly listings.
+
+ This directive affects subsequent pages, as well as the current page
+if it appears within ten lines of the top of a page.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Scl, Next: Section, Prev: Sbttl, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.scl CLASS'
+============
+
+ Set the storage-class value for a symbol. This directive may only be
+used inside a `.def'/`.endef' pair. Storage class may flag whether a
+symbol is static or external, or it may record further symbolic
+debugging information.
+
+ The `.scl' directive is primarily associated with COFF output; when
+configured to generate `b.out' output format, `as' will accept this
+directive but ignore it.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Section, Next: Set, Prev: Scl, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.section NAME, SUBSECTION'
+===========================
+
+ Assemble the following code into end of subsection numbered
+SUBSECTION in the COFF named section NAME. If you omit SUBSECTION,
+`as' uses subsection number zero. `.section .text' is equivalent to
+the `.text' directive; `.section .data' is equivalent to the `.data'
+directive.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Set, Next: Short, Prev: Section, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.set SYMBOL, EXPRESSION'
+=========================
+
+ This directive sets the value of SYMBOL to EXPRESSION. This will
+change SYMBOL's value and type to conform to EXPRESSION. If SYMBOL was
+flagged as external, it remains flagged. (*Note Symbol Attributes::.)
+
+ You may `.set' a symbol many times in the same assembly. If the
+expression's section is unknowable during pass 1, a second pass over
+the source program will be forced. The second pass is currently not
+implemented. `as' will abort with an error message if one is required.
+
+ If you `.set' a global symbol, the value stored in the object file
+is the last value stored into it.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Short, Next: Single, Prev: Set, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.short EXPRESSIONS'
+====================
+
+ `.short' is normally the same as `.word'. *Note `.word': Word.
+
+ In some configurations, however, `.short' and `.word' generate
+numbers of different lengths; *note Machine Dependencies::..
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Single, Next: Size, Prev: Short, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.single FLONUMS'
+=================
+
+ This directive assembles zero or more flonums, separated by commas.
+It has the same effect as `.float'. The exact kind of floating point
+numbers emitted depends on how `as' is configured. *Note Machine
+Dependencies::.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Size, Next: Space, Prev: Single, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.size'
+=======
+
+ This directive is generated by compilers to include auxiliary
+debugging information in the symbol table. It is only permitted inside
+`.def'/`.endef' pairs.
+
+ `.size' is only meaningful when generating COFF format output; when
+`as' is generating `b.out', it accepts this directive but ignores it.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Space, Next: Stab, Prev: Size, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.space SIZE , FILL'
+====================
+
+ This directive emits SIZE bytes, each of value FILL. Both SIZE and
+FILL are absolute expressions. If the comma and FILL are omitted, FILL
+is assumed to be zero.
+
+ On the AMD 29K, this directive is ignored; it is accepted for
+compatibility with other AMD 29K assemblers.
+
+ *Warning:* In most versions of the GNU assembler, the directive
+ `.space' has the effect of `.block' *Note Machine Dependencies::.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Stab, Next: Tag, Prev: Space, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.stabd, .stabn, .stabs'
+========================
+
+ There are three directives that begin `.stab'. All emit symbols
+(*note Symbols::.), for use by symbolic debuggers. The symbols are not
+entered in the `as' hash table: they cannot be referenced elsewhere in
+the source file. Up to five fields are required:
+
+STRING
+ This is the symbol's name. It may contain any character except
+ `\000', so is more general than ordinary symbol names. Some
+ debuggers used to code arbitrarily complex structures into symbol
+ names using this field.
+
+TYPE
+ An absolute expression. The symbol's type is set to the low 8
+ bits of this expression. Any bit pattern is permitted, but `ld'
+ and debuggers will choke on silly bit patterns.
+
+OTHER
+ An absolute expression. The symbol's "other" attribute is set to
+ the low 8 bits of this expression.
+
+DESC
+ An absolute expression. The symbol's descriptor is set to the low
+ 16 bits of this expression.
+
+VALUE
+ An absolute expression which becomes the symbol's value.
+
+ If a warning is detected while reading a `.stabd', `.stabn', or
+`.stabs' statement, the symbol has probably already been created and
+you will get a half-formed symbol in your object file. This is
+compatible with earlier assemblers!
+
+`.stabd TYPE , OTHER , DESC'
+ The "name" of the symbol generated is not even an empty string.
+ It is a null pointer, for compatibility. Older assemblers used a
+ null pointer so they didn't waste space in object files with empty
+ strings.
+
+ The symbol's value is set to the location counter, relocatably.
+ When your program is linked, the value of this symbol will be
+ where the location counter was when the `.stabd' was assembled.
+
+`.stabn TYPE , OTHER , DESC , VALUE'
+ The name of the symbol is set to the empty string `""'.
+
+`.stabs STRING , TYPE , OTHER , DESC , VALUE'
+ All five fields are specified.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Tag, Next: Text, Prev: Stab, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.tag STRUCTNAME'
+=================
+
+ This directive is generated by compilers to include auxiliary
+debugging information in the symbol table. It is only permitted inside
+`.def'/`.endef' pairs. Tags are used to link structure definitions in
+the symbol table with instances of those structures.
+
+ `.tag' is only used when generating COFF format output; when `as' is
+generating `b.out', it accepts this directive but ignores it.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Text, Next: Title, Prev: Tag, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.text SUBSECTION'
+==================
+
+ Tells `as' to assemble the following statements onto the end of the
+text subsection numbered SUBSECTION, which is an absolute expression.
+If SUBSECTION is omitted, subsection number zero is used.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Title, Next: Type, Prev: Text, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.title "HEADING"'
+==================
+
+ Use HEADING as the title (second line, immediately after the source
+file name and pagenumber) when generating assembly listings.
+
+ This directive affects subsequent pages, as well as the current page
+if it appears within ten lines of the top of a page.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Type, Next: Val, Prev: Title, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.type INT'
+===========
+
+ This directive, permitted only within `.def'/`.endef' pairs, records
+the integer INT as the type attribute of a symbol table entry.
+
+ `.type' is associated only with COFF format output; when `as' is
+configured for `b.out' output, it accepts this directive but ignores it.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Val, Next: Word, Prev: Type, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.val ADDR'
+===========
+
+ This directive, permitted only within `.def'/`.endef' pairs, records
+the address ADDR as the value attribute of a symbol table entry.
+
+ `.val' is used only for COFF output; when `as' is configured for
+`b.out', it accepts this directive but ignores it.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Word, Next: Deprecated, Prev: Val, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+`.word EXPRESSIONS'
+===================
+
+ This directive expects zero or more EXPRESSIONS, of any section,
+separated by commas.
+
+ The size of the number emitted, and its byte order, depends on what
+kind of computer will run the program.
+
+ *Warning: Special Treatment to support Compilers*
+
+ Machines with a 32-bit address space, but that do less than 32-bit
+addressing, require the following special treatment. If the machine of
+interest to you does 32-bit addressing (or doesn't require it; *note
+Machine Dependencies::.), you can ignore this issue.
+
+ In order to assemble compiler output into something that will work,
+`as' will occasionlly do strange things to `.word' directives.
+Directives of the form `.word sym1-sym2' are often emitted by compilers
+as part of jump tables. Therefore, when `as' assembles a directive of
+the form `.word sym1-sym2', and the difference between `sym1' and
+`sym2' does not fit in 16 bits, `as' will create a "secondary jump
+table", immediately before the next label. This secondary jump table
+will be preceded by a short-jump to the first byte after the secondary
+table. This short-jump prevents the flow of control from accidentally
+falling into the new table. Inside the table will be a long-jump to
+`sym2'. The original `.word' will contain `sym1' minus the address of
+the long-jump to `sym2'.
+
+ If there were several occurrences of `.word sym1-sym2' before the
+secondary jump table, all of them will be adjusted. If there was a
+`.word sym3-sym4', that also did not fit in sixteen bits, a long-jump
+to `sym4' will be included in the secondary jump table, and the `.word'
+directives will be adjusted to contain `sym3' minus the address of the
+long-jump to `sym4'; and so on, for as many entries in the original
+jump table as necessary.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Deprecated, Prev: Word, Up: Pseudo Ops
+
+Deprecated Directives
+=====================
+
+ One day these directives won't work. They are included for
+compatibility with older assemblers.
+.abort
+.app-file
+.line
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Machine Dependencies, Next: Copying, Prev: Pseudo Ops, Up: Top
+
+Machine Dependent Features
+**************************
+
+ The machine instruction sets are (almost by definition) different on
+each machine where `as' runs. Floating point representations vary as
+well, and `as' often supports a few additional directives or
+command-line options for compatibility with other assemblers on a
+particular platform. Finally, some versions of `as' support special
+pseudo-instructions for branch optimization.
+
+ This chapter discusses most of these differences, though it does not
+include details on any machine's instruction set. For details on that
+subject, see the hardware manufacturer's manual.
+
+* Menu:
+
+
+* Vax-Dependent:: VAX Dependent Features
+
+* AMD29K-Dependent:: AMD 29K Dependent Features
+
+* H8/300-Dependent:: Hitachi H8/300 Dependent Features
+
+* H8/500-Dependent:: Hitachi H8/500 Dependent Features
+
+* SH-Dependent:: Hitachi SH Dependent Features
+
+* i960-Dependent:: Intel 80960 Dependent Features
+
+* M68K-Dependent:: M680x0 Dependent Features
+
+* Sparc-Dependent:: SPARC Dependent Features
+
+* Z8000-Dependent:: Z8000 Dependent Features
+
+* i386-Dependent:: 80386 Dependent Features
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Vax-Dependent, Next: AMD29K-Dependent, Up: Machine Dependencies
+
+VAX Dependent Features
+======================
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Vax-Opts:: VAX Command-Line Options
+* VAX-float:: VAX Floating Point
+* VAX-directives:: Vax Machine Directives
+* VAX-opcodes:: VAX Opcodes
+* VAX-branch:: VAX Branch Improvement
+* VAX-operands:: VAX Operands
+* VAX-no:: Not Supported on VAX
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Vax-Opts, Next: VAX-float, Up: Vax-Dependent
+
+VAX Command-Line Options
+------------------------
+
+ The Vax version of `as' accepts any of the following options, gives
+a warning message that the option was ignored and proceeds. These
+options are for compatibility with scripts designed for other people's
+assemblers.
+
+`-D' (Debug)
+`-S' (Symbol Table)
+`-T' (Token Trace)
+ These are obsolete options used to debug old assemblers.
+
+`-d' (Displacement size for JUMPs)
+ This option expects a number following the `-d'. Like options
+ that expect filenames, the number may immediately follow the `-d'
+ (old standard) or constitute the whole of the command line
+ argument that follows `-d' (GNU standard).
+
+`-V' (Virtualize Interpass Temporary File)
+ Some other assemblers use a temporary file. This option commanded
+ them to keep the information in active memory rather than in a
+ disk file. `as' always does this, so this option is redundant.
+
+`-J' (JUMPify Longer Branches)
+ Many 32-bit computers permit a variety of branch instructions to
+ do the same job. Some of these instructions are short (and fast)
+ but have a limited range; others are long (and slow) but can
+ branch anywhere in virtual memory. Often there are 3 flavors of
+ branch: short, medium and long. Some other assemblers would emit
+ short and medium branches, unless told by this option to emit
+ short and long branches.
+
+`-t' (Temporary File Directory)
+ Some other assemblers may use a temporary file, and this option
+ takes a filename being the directory to site the temporary file.
+ Since `as' does not use a temporary disk file, this option makes
+ no difference. `-t' needs exactly one filename.
+
+ The Vax version of the assembler accepts two options when compiled
+for VMS. They are `-h', and `-+'. The `-h' option prevents `as' from
+modifying the symbol-table entries for symbols that contain lowercase
+characters (I think). The `-+' option causes `as' to print warning
+messages if the FILENAME part of the object file, or any symbol name is
+larger than 31 characters. The `-+' option also insertes some code
+following the `_main' symbol so that the object file will be compatible
+with Vax-11 "C".
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: VAX-float, Next: VAX-directives, Prev: Vax-Opts, Up: Vax-Dependent
+
+VAX Floating Point
+------------------
+
+ Conversion of flonums to floating point is correct, and compatible
+with previous assemblers. Rounding is towards zero if the remainder is
+exactly half the least significant bit.
+
+ `D', `F', `G' and `H' floating point formats are understood.
+
+ Immediate floating literals (*e.g.* `S`$6.9') are rendered
+correctly. Again, rounding is towards zero in the boundary case.
+
+ The `.float' directive produces `f' format numbers. The `.double'
+directive produces `d' format numbers.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: VAX-directives, Next: VAX-opcodes, Prev: VAX-float, Up: Vax-Dependent
+
+Vax Machine Directives
+----------------------
+
+ The Vax version of the assembler supports four directives for
+generating Vax floating point constants. They are described in the
+table below.
+
+`.dfloat'
+ This expects zero or more flonums, separated by commas, and
+ assembles Vax `d' format 64-bit floating point constants.
+
+`.ffloat'
+ This expects zero or more flonums, separated by commas, and
+ assembles Vax `f' format 32-bit floating point constants.
+
+`.gfloat'
+ This expects zero or more flonums, separated by commas, and
+ assembles Vax `g' format 64-bit floating point constants.
+
+`.hfloat'
+ This expects zero or more flonums, separated by commas, and
+ assembles Vax `h' format 128-bit floating point constants.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: VAX-opcodes, Next: VAX-branch, Prev: VAX-directives, Up: Vax-Dependent
+
+VAX Opcodes
+-----------
+
+ All DEC mnemonics are supported. Beware that `case...' instructions
+have exactly 3 operands. The dispatch table that follows the `case...'
+instruction should be made with `.word' statements. This is compatible
+with all unix assemblers we know of.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: VAX-branch, Next: VAX-operands, Prev: VAX-opcodes, Up: Vax-Dependent
+
+VAX Branch Improvement
+----------------------
+
+ Certain pseudo opcodes are permitted. They are for branch
+instructions. They expand to the shortest branch instruction that will
+reach the target. Generally these mnemonics are made by substituting
+`j' for `b' at the start of a DEC mnemonic. This feature is included
+both for compatibility and to help compilers. If you don't need this
+feature, don't use these opcodes. Here are the mnemonics, and the code
+they can expand into.
+
+`jbsb'
+ `Jsb' is already an instruction mnemonic, so we chose `jbsb'.
+ (byte displacement)
+ `bsbb ...'
+
+ (word displacement)
+ `bsbw ...'
+
+ (long displacement)
+ `jsb ...'
+
+`jbr'
+`jr'
+ Unconditional branch.
+ (byte displacement)
+ `brb ...'
+
+ (word displacement)
+ `brw ...'
+
+ (long displacement)
+ `jmp ...'
+
+`jCOND'
+ COND may be any one of the conditional branches `neq', `nequ',
+ `eql', `eqlu', `gtr', `geq', `lss', `gtru', `lequ', `vc', `vs',
+ `gequ', `cc', `lssu', `cs'. COND may also be one of the bit tests
+ `bs', `bc', `bss', `bcs', `bsc', `bcc', `bssi', `bcci', `lbs',
+ `lbc'. NOTCOND is the opposite condition to COND.
+ (byte displacement)
+ `bCOND ...'
+
+ (word displacement)
+ `bNOTCOND foo ; brw ... ; foo:'
+
+ (long displacement)
+ `bNOTCOND foo ; jmp ... ; foo:'
+
+`jacbX'
+ X may be one of `b d f g h l w'.
+ (word displacement)
+ `OPCODE ...'
+
+ (long displacement)
+ OPCODE ..., foo ;
+ brb bar ;
+ foo: jmp ... ;
+ bar:
+
+`jaobYYY'
+ YYY may be one of `lss leq'.
+
+`jsobZZZ'
+ ZZZ may be one of `geq gtr'.
+ (byte displacement)
+ `OPCODE ...'
+
+ (word displacement)
+ OPCODE ..., foo ;
+ brb bar ;
+ foo: brw DESTINATION ;
+ bar:
+
+ (long displacement)
+ OPCODE ..., foo ;
+ brb bar ;
+ foo: jmp DESTINATION ;
+ bar:
+
+`aobleq'
+`aoblss'
+`sobgeq'
+`sobgtr'
+ (byte displacement)
+ `OPCODE ...'
+
+ (word displacement)
+ OPCODE ..., foo ;
+ brb bar ;
+ foo: brw DESTINATION ;
+ bar:
+
+ (long displacement)
+ OPCODE ..., foo ;
+ brb bar ;
+ foo: jmp DESTINATION ;
+ bar:
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: VAX-operands, Next: VAX-no, Prev: VAX-branch, Up: Vax-Dependent
+
+VAX Operands
+------------
+
+ The immediate character is `$' for Unix compatibility, not `#' as
+DEC writes it.
+
+ The indirect character is `*' for Unix compatibility, not `@' as DEC
+writes it.
+
+ The displacement sizing character is ``' (an accent grave) for Unix
+compatibility, not `^' as DEC writes it. The letter preceding ``' may
+have either case. `G' is not understood, but all other letters (`b i l
+s w') are understood.
+
+ Register names understood are `r0 r1 r2 ... r15 ap fp sp pc'. Any
+case of letters will do.
+
+ For instance
+ tstb *w`$4(r5)
+
+ Any expression is permitted in an operand. Operands are comma
+separated.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: VAX-no, Prev: VAX-operands, Up: Vax-Dependent
+
+Not Supported on VAX
+--------------------
+
+ Vax bit fields can not be assembled with `as'. Someone can add the
+required code if they really need it.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: AMD29K-Dependent, Next: H8/300-Dependent, Prev: Vax-Dependent, Up: Machine Dependencies
+
+AMD 29K Dependent Features
+==========================
+
+* Menu:
+
+* AMD29K Options:: Options
+* AMD29K Syntax:: Syntax
+* AMD29K Floating Point:: Floating Point
+* AMD29K Directives:: AMD 29K Machine Directives
+* AMD29K Opcodes:: Opcodes
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: AMD29K Options, Next: AMD29K Syntax, Up: AMD29K-Dependent
+
+Options
+-------
+
+ `as' has no additional command-line options for the AMD 29K family.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: AMD29K Syntax, Next: AMD29K Floating Point, Prev: AMD29K Options, Up: AMD29K-Dependent
+
+Syntax
+------
+
+* Menu:
+
+* AMD29K-Chars:: Special Characters
+* AMD29K-Regs:: Register Names
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: AMD29K-Chars, Next: AMD29K-Regs, Up: AMD29K Syntax
+
+Special Characters
+..................
+
+ `;' is the line comment character.
+
+ `@' can be used instead of a newline to separate statements.
+
+ The character `?' is permitted in identifiers (but may not begin an
+identifier).
+
--- /dev/null
+This is Info file as.info, produced by Makeinfo-1.55 from the input
+file ./as.texinfo.
+
+START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+* As:: The GNU assembler.
+END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+
+ This file documents the GNU Assembler "as".
+
+ Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+
+ Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
+manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
+preserved on all copies.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
+this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
+that the section entitled "GNU General Public License" is included
+exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting
+derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice
+identical to this one.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
+manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
+versions, except that the section entitled "GNU General Public License"
+may be included in a translation approved by the Free Software
+Foundation instead of in the original English.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: AMD29K-Regs, Prev: AMD29K-Chars, Up: AMD29K Syntax
+
+Register Names
+..............
+
+ General-purpose registers are represented by predefined symbols of
+the form `GRNNN' (for global registers) or `LRNNN' (for local
+registers), where NNN represents a number between `0' and `127',
+written with no leading zeros. The leading letters may be in either
+upper or lower case; for example, `gr13' and `LR7' are both valid
+register names.
+
+ You may also refer to general-purpose registers by specifying the
+register number as the result of an expression (prefixed with `%%' to
+flag the expression as a register number):
+ %%EXPRESSION
+
+--where EXPRESSION must be an absolute expression evaluating to a
+number between `0' and `255'. The range [0, 127] refers to global
+registers, and the range [128, 255] to local registers.
+
+ In addition, `as' understands the following protected
+special-purpose register names for the AMD 29K family:
+
+ vab chd pc0
+ ops chc pc1
+ cps rbp pc2
+ cfg tmc mmu
+ cha tmr lru
+
+ These unprotected special-purpose register names are also recognized:
+ ipc alu fpe
+ ipa bp inte
+ ipb fc fps
+ q cr exop
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: AMD29K Floating Point, Next: AMD29K Directives, Prev: AMD29K Syntax, Up: AMD29K-Dependent
+
+Floating Point
+--------------
+
+ The AMD 29K family uses IEEE floating-point numbers.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: AMD29K Directives, Next: AMD29K Opcodes, Prev: AMD29K Floating Point, Up: AMD29K-Dependent
+
+AMD 29K Machine Directives
+--------------------------
+
+`.block SIZE , FILL'
+ This directive emits SIZE bytes, each of value FILL. Both SIZE
+ and FILL are absolute expressions. If the comma and FILL are
+ omitted, FILL is assumed to be zero.
+
+ In other versions of the GNU assembler, this directive is called
+ `.space'.
+
+`.cputype'
+ This directive is ignored; it is accepted for compatibility with
+ other AMD 29K assemblers.
+
+`.file'
+ This directive is ignored; it is accepted for compatibility with
+ other AMD 29K assemblers.
+
+ *Warning:* in other versions of the GNU assembler, `.file' is
+ used for the directive called `.app-file' in the AMD 29K
+ support.
+
+`.line'
+ This directive is ignored; it is accepted for compatibility with
+ other AMD 29K assemblers.
+
+`.sect'
+ This directive is ignored; it is accepted for compatibility with
+ other AMD 29K assemblers.
+
+`.use SECTION NAME'
+ Establishes the section and subsection for the following code;
+ SECTION NAME may be one of `.text', `.data', `.data1', or `.lit'.
+ With one of the first three SECTION NAME options, `.use' is
+ equivalent to the machine directive SECTION NAME; the remaining
+ case, `.use .lit', is the same as `.data 200'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: AMD29K Opcodes, Prev: AMD29K Directives, Up: AMD29K-Dependent
+
+Opcodes
+-------
+
+ `as' implements all the standard AMD 29K opcodes. No additional
+pseudo-instructions are needed on this family.
+
+ For information on the 29K machine instruction set, see `Am29000
+User's Manual', Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/300-Dependent, Next: H8/500-Dependent, Prev: AMD29K-Dependent, Up: Machine Dependencies
+
+H8/300 Dependent Features
+=========================
+
+* Menu:
+
+* H8/300 Options:: Options
+* H8/300 Syntax:: Syntax
+* H8/300 Floating Point:: Floating Point
+* H8/300 Directives:: H8/300 Machine Directives
+* H8/300 Opcodes:: Opcodes
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/300 Options, Next: H8/300 Syntax, Up: H8/300-Dependent
+
+Options
+-------
+
+ `as' has no additional command-line options for the Hitachi H8/300
+family.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/300 Syntax, Next: H8/300 Floating Point, Prev: H8/300 Options, Up: H8/300-Dependent
+
+Syntax
+------
+
+* Menu:
+
+* H8/300-Chars:: Special Characters
+* H8/300-Regs:: Register Names
+* H8/300-Addressing:: Addressing Modes
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/300-Chars, Next: H8/300-Regs, Up: H8/300 Syntax
+
+Special Characters
+..................
+
+ `;' is the line comment character.
+
+ `$' can be used instead of a newline to separate statements.
+Therefore *you may not use `$' in symbol names* on the H8/300.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/300-Regs, Next: H8/300-Addressing, Prev: H8/300-Chars, Up: H8/300 Syntax
+
+Register Names
+..............
+
+ You can use predefined symbols of the form `rNh' and `rNl' to refer
+to the H8/300 registers as sixteen 8-bit general-purpose registers. N
+is a digit from `0' to `7'); for instance, both `r0h' and `r7l' are
+valid register names.
+
+ You can also use the eight predefined symbols `rN' to refer to the
+H8/300 registers as 16-bit registers (you must use this form for
+addressing).
+
+ On the H8/300H, you can also use the eight predefined symbols `erN'
+(`er0' ... `er7') to refer to the 32-bit general purpose registers.
+
+ The two control registers are called `pc' (program counter; a 16-bit
+register, except on the H8/300H where it is 24 bits) and `ccr'
+(condition code register; an 8-bit register). `r7' is used as the
+stack pointer, and can also be called `sp'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/300-Addressing, Prev: H8/300-Regs, Up: H8/300 Syntax
+
+Addressing Modes
+................
+
+ as understands the following addressing modes for the H8/300:
+`rN'
+ Register direct
+
+`@rN'
+ Register indirect
+
+`@(D, rN)'
+`@(D:16, rN)'
+`@(D:24, rN)'
+ Register indirect: 16-bit or 24-bit displacement D from register
+ N. (24-bit displacements are only meaningful on the H8/300H.)
+
+`@rN+'
+ Register indirect with post-increment
+
+`@-rN'
+ Register indirect with pre-decrement
+
+``@'AA'
+``@'AA:8'
+``@'AA:16'
+``@'AA:24'
+ Absolute address `aa'. (The address size `:24' only makes sense
+ on the H8/300H.)
+
+`#XX'
+`#XX:8'
+`#XX:16'
+`#XX:32'
+ Immediate data XX. You may specify the `:8', `:16', or `:32' for
+ clarity, if you wish; but `as' neither requires this nor uses
+ it--the data size required is taken from context.
+
+``@'`@'AA'
+``@'`@'AA:8'
+ Memory indirect. You may specify the `:8' for clarity, if you
+ wish; but `as' neither requires this nor uses it.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/300 Floating Point, Next: H8/300 Directives, Prev: H8/300 Syntax, Up: H8/300-Dependent
+
+Floating Point
+--------------
+
+ The H8/300 family has no hardware floating point, but the `.float'
+directive generates IEEE floating-point numbers for compatibility with
+other development tools.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/300 Directives, Next: H8/300 Opcodes, Prev: H8/300 Floating Point, Up: H8/300-Dependent
+
+H8/300 Machine Directives
+-------------------------
+
+ `as' has only one machine-dependent directive for the H8/300:
+
+`.h300h'
+ Recognize and emit additional instructions for the H8/300H
+ variant, and also make `.int' emit 32-bit numbers rather than the
+ usual (16-bit) for the H8/300 family.
+
+ On the H8/300 family (including the H8/300H) `.word' directives
+generate 16-bit numbers.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/300 Opcodes, Prev: H8/300 Directives, Up: H8/300-Dependent
+
+Opcodes
+-------
+
+ For detailed information on the H8/300 machine instruction set, see
+`H8/300 Series Programming Manual' (Hitachi ADE-602-025). For
+information specific to the H8/300H, see `H8/300H Series Programming
+Manual' (Hitachi).
+
+ `as' implements all the standard H8/300 opcodes. No additional
+pseudo-instructions are needed on this family.
+
+ The following table summarizes the H8/300 opcodes, and their
+arguments. Entries marked `*' are opcodes used only on the H8/300H.
+
+ Legend:
+ Rs source register
+ Rd destination register
+ abs absolute address
+ imm immediate data
+ disp:N N-bit displacement from a register
+ pcrel:N N-bit displacement relative to program counter
+
+ add.b #imm,rd * andc #imm,ccr
+ add.b rs,rd band #imm,rd
+ add.w rs,rd band #imm,@rd
+ * add.w #imm,rd band #imm,@abs:8
+ * add.l rs,rd bra pcrel:8
+ * add.l #imm,rd * bra pcrel:16
+ adds #imm,rd bt pcrel:8
+ addx #imm,rd * bt pcrel:16
+ addx rs,rd brn pcrel:8
+ and.b #imm,rd * brn pcrel:16
+ and.b rs,rd bf pcrel:8
+ * and.w rs,rd * bf pcrel:16
+ * and.w #imm,rd bhi pcrel:8
+ * and.l #imm,rd * bhi pcrel:16
+ * and.l rs,rd bls pcrel:8
+
+ * bls pcrel:16 bld #imm,rd
+ bcc pcrel:8 bld #imm,@rd
+ * bcc pcrel:16 bld #imm,@abs:8
+ bhs pcrel:8 bnot #imm,rd
+ * bhs pcrel:16 bnot #imm,@rd
+ bcs pcrel:8 bnot #imm,@abs:8
+ * bcs pcrel:16 bnot rs,rd
+ blo pcrel:8 bnot rs,@rd
+ * blo pcrel:16 bnot rs,@abs:8
+ bne pcrel:8 bor #imm,rd
+ * bne pcrel:16 bor #imm,@rd
+ beq pcrel:8 bor #imm,@abs:8
+ * beq pcrel:16 bset #imm,rd
+ bvc pcrel:8 bset #imm,@rd
+ * bvc pcrel:16 bset #imm,@abs:8
+ bvs pcrel:8 bset rs,rd
+ * bvs pcrel:16 bset rs,@rd
+ bpl pcrel:8 bset rs,@abs:8
+ * bpl pcrel:16 bsr pcrel:8
+ bmi pcrel:8 bsr pcrel:16
+ * bmi pcrel:16 bst #imm,rd
+ bge pcrel:8 bst #imm,@rd
+ * bge pcrel:16 bst #imm,@abs:8
+ blt pcrel:8 btst #imm,rd
+ * blt pcrel:16 btst #imm,@rd
+ bgt pcrel:8 btst #imm,@abs:8
+ * bgt pcrel:16 btst rs,rd
+ ble pcrel:8 btst rs,@rd
+ * ble pcrel:16 btst rs,@abs:8
+ bclr #imm,rd bxor #imm,rd
+ bclr #imm,@rd bxor #imm,@rd
+ bclr #imm,@abs:8 bxor #imm,@abs:8
+ bclr rs,rd cmp.b #imm,rd
+ bclr rs,@rd cmp.b rs,rd
+ bclr rs,@abs:8 cmp.w rs,rd
+ biand #imm,rd cmp.w rs,rd
+ biand #imm,@rd * cmp.w #imm,rd
+ biand #imm,@abs:8 * cmp.l #imm,rd
+ bild #imm,rd * cmp.l rs,rd
+ bild #imm,@rd daa rs
+ bild #imm,@abs:8 das rs
+ bior #imm,rd dec.b rs
+ bior #imm,@rd * dec.w #imm,rd
+ bior #imm,@abs:8 * dec.l #imm,rd
+ bist #imm,rd divxu.b rs,rd
+ bist #imm,@rd * divxu.w rs,rd
+ bist #imm,@abs:8 * divxs.b rs,rd
+ bixor #imm,rd * divxs.w rs,rd
+ bixor #imm,@rd eepmov
+ bixor #imm,@abs:8 * eepmovw
+
+ * exts.w rd mov.w rs,@abs:16
+ * exts.l rd * mov.l #imm,rd
+ * extu.w rd * mov.l rs,rd
+ * extu.l rd * mov.l @rs,rd
+ inc rs * mov.l @(disp:16,rs),rd
+ * inc.w #imm,rd * mov.l @(disp:24,rs),rd
+ * inc.l #imm,rd * mov.l @rs+,rd
+ jmp @rs * mov.l @abs:16,rd
+ jmp abs * mov.l @abs:24,rd
+ jmp @@abs:8 * mov.l rs,@rd
+ jsr @rs * mov.l rs,@(disp:16,rd)
+ jsr abs * mov.l rs,@(disp:24,rd)
+ jsr @@abs:8 * mov.l rs,@-rd
+ ldc #imm,ccr * mov.l rs,@abs:16
+ ldc rs,ccr * mov.l rs,@abs:24
+ * ldc @abs:16,ccr movfpe @abs:16,rd
+ * ldc @abs:24,ccr movtpe rs,@abs:16
+ * ldc @(disp:16,rs),ccr mulxu.b rs,rd
+ * ldc @(disp:24,rs),ccr * mulxu.w rs,rd
+ * ldc @rs+,ccr * mulxs.b rs,rd
+ * ldc @rs,ccr * mulxs.w rs,rd
+ * mov.b @(disp:24,rs),rd neg.b rs
+ * mov.b rs,@(disp:24,rd) * neg.w rs
+ mov.b @abs:16,rd * neg.l rs
+ mov.b rs,rd nop
+ mov.b @abs:8,rd not.b rs
+ mov.b rs,@abs:8 * not.w rs
+ mov.b rs,rd * not.l rs
+ mov.b #imm,rd or.b #imm,rd
+ mov.b @rs,rd or.b rs,rd
+ mov.b @(disp:16,rs),rd * or.w #imm,rd
+ mov.b @rs+,rd * or.w rs,rd
+ mov.b @abs:8,rd * or.l #imm,rd
+ mov.b rs,@rd * or.l rs,rd
+ mov.b rs,@(disp:16,rd) orc #imm,ccr
+ mov.b rs,@-rd pop.w rs
+ mov.b rs,@abs:8 * pop.l rs
+ mov.w rs,@rd push.w rs
+ * mov.w @(disp:24,rs),rd * push.l rs
+ * mov.w rs,@(disp:24,rd) rotl.b rs
+ * mov.w @abs:24,rd * rotl.w rs
+ * mov.w rs,@abs:24 * rotl.l rs
+ mov.w rs,rd rotr.b rs
+ mov.w #imm,rd * rotr.w rs
+ mov.w @rs,rd * rotr.l rs
+ mov.w @(disp:16,rs),rd rotxl.b rs
+ mov.w @rs+,rd * rotxl.w rs
+ mov.w @abs:16,rd * rotxl.l rs
+ mov.w rs,@(disp:16,rd) rotxr.b rs
+ mov.w rs,@-rd * rotxr.w rs
+
+ * rotxr.l rs * stc ccr,@(disp:24,rd)
+ bpt * stc ccr,@-rd
+ rte * stc ccr,@abs:16
+ rts * stc ccr,@abs:24
+ shal.b rs sub.b rs,rd
+ * shal.w rs sub.w rs,rd
+ * shal.l rs * sub.w #imm,rd
+ shar.b rs * sub.l rs,rd
+ * shar.w rs * sub.l #imm,rd
+ * shar.l rs subs #imm,rd
+ shll.b rs subx #imm,rd
+ * shll.w rs subx rs,rd
+ * shll.l rs * trapa #imm
+ shlr.b rs xor #imm,rd
+ * shlr.w rs xor rs,rd
+ * shlr.l rs * xor.w #imm,rd
+ sleep * xor.w rs,rd
+ stc ccr,rd * xor.l #imm,rd
+ * stc ccr,@rs * xor.l rs,rd
+ * stc ccr,@(disp:16,rd) xorc #imm,ccr
+
+ Four H8/300 instructions (`add', `cmp', `mov', `sub') are defined
+with variants using the suffixes `.b', `.w', and `.l' to specify the
+size of a memory operand. `as' supports these suffixes, but does not
+require them; since one of the operands is always a register, `as' can
+deduce the correct size.
+
+ For example, since `r0' refers to a 16-bit register,
+ mov r0,@foo
+is equivalent to
+ mov.w r0,@foo
+
+ If you use the size suffixes, `as' issues a warning when the suffix
+and the register size do not match.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/500-Dependent, Next: SH-Dependent, Prev: H8/300-Dependent, Up: Machine Dependencies
+
+H8/500 Dependent Features
+=========================
+
+* Menu:
+
+* H8/500 Options:: Options
+* H8/500 Syntax:: Syntax
+* H8/500 Floating Point:: Floating Point
+* H8/500 Directives:: H8/500 Machine Directives
+* H8/500 Opcodes:: Opcodes
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/500 Options, Next: H8/500 Syntax, Up: H8/500-Dependent
+
+Options
+-------
+
+ `as' has no additional command-line options for the Hitachi H8/500
+family.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/500 Syntax, Next: H8/500 Floating Point, Prev: H8/500 Options, Up: H8/500-Dependent
+
+Syntax
+------
+
+* Menu:
+
+* H8/500-Chars:: Special Characters
+* H8/500-Regs:: Register Names
+* H8/500-Addressing:: Addressing Modes
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/500-Chars, Next: H8/500-Regs, Up: H8/500 Syntax
+
+Special Characters
+..................
+
+ `!' is the line comment character.
+
+ `;' can be used instead of a newline to separate statements.
+
+ Since `$' has no special meaning, you may use it in symbol names.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/500-Regs, Next: H8/500-Addressing, Prev: H8/500-Chars, Up: H8/500 Syntax
+
+Register Names
+..............
+
+ You can use the predefined symbols `r0', `r1', `r2', `r3', `r4',
+`r5', `r6', and `r7' to refer to the H8/500 registers.
+
+ The H8/500 also has these control registers:
+
+`cp'
+ code pointer
+
+`dp'
+ data pointer
+
+`bp'
+ base pointer
+
+`tp'
+ stack top pointer
+
+`ep'
+ extra pointer
+
+`sr'
+ status register
+
+`ccr'
+ condition code register
+
+ All registers are 16 bits long. To represent 32 bit numbers, use two
+adjacent registers; for distant memory addresses, use one of the segment
+pointers (`cp' for the program counter; `dp' for `r0'-`r3'; `ep' for
+`r4' and `r5'; and `tp' for `r6' and `r7'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/500-Addressing, Prev: H8/500-Regs, Up: H8/500 Syntax
+
+Addressing Modes
+................
+
+ as understands the following addressing modes for the H8/500:
+`RN'
+ Register direct
+
+`@RN'
+ Register indirect
+
+`@(d:8, RN)'
+ Register indirect with 8 bit signed displacement
+
+`@(d:16, RN)'
+ Register indirect with 16 bit signed displacement
+
+`@-RN'
+ Register indirect with pre-decrement
+
+`@RN+'
+ Register indirect with post-increment
+
+`@AA:8'
+ 8 bit absolute address
+
+`@AA:16'
+ 16 bit absolute address
+
+`#XX:8'
+ 8 bit immediate
+
+`#XX:16'
+ 16 bit immediate
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/500 Floating Point, Next: H8/500 Directives, Prev: H8/500 Syntax, Up: H8/500-Dependent
+
+Floating Point
+--------------
+
+ The H8/500 family uses IEEE floating-point numbers.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/500 Directives, Next: H8/500 Opcodes, Prev: H8/500 Floating Point, Up: H8/500-Dependent
+
+H8/500 Machine Directives
+-------------------------
+
+ `as' has no machine-dependent directives for the H8/500. However,
+on this platform the `.int' and `.word' directives generate 16-bit
+numbers.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: H8/500 Opcodes, Prev: H8/500 Directives, Up: H8/500-Dependent
+
+Opcodes
+-------
+
+ For detailed information on the H8/500 machine instruction set, see
+`H8/500 Series Programming Manual' (Hitachi M21T001).
+
+ `as' implements all the standard H8/500 opcodes. No additional
+pseudo-instructions are needed on this family.
+
+ The following table summarizes H8/500 opcodes and their operands:
+
+ Legend:
+ abs8 8-bit absolute address
+ abs16 16-bit absolute address
+ abs24 24-bit absolute address
+ crb `ccr', `br', `ep', `dp', `tp', `dp'
+ disp8 8-bit displacement
+ ea `rn', `@rn', `@(d:8, rn)', `@(d:16, rn)',
+ `@-rn', `@rn+', `@aa:8', `@aa:16',
+ `#xx:8', `#xx:16'
+ ea_mem `@rn', `@(d:8, rn)', `@(d:16, rn)',
+ `@-rn', `@rn+', `@aa:8', `@aa:16'
+ ea_noimm `rn', `@rn', `@(d:8, rn)', `@(d:16, rn)',
+ `@-rn', `@rn+', `@aa:8', `@aa:16'
+ fp r6
+ imm4 4-bit immediate data
+ imm8 8-bit immediate data
+ imm16 16-bit immediate data
+ pcrel8 8-bit offset from program counter
+ pcrel16 16-bit offset from program counter
+ qim `-2', `-1', `1', `2'
+ rd any register
+ rs a register distinct from rd
+ rlist comma-separated list of registers in parentheses;
+ register ranges `rd-rs' are allowed
+ sp stack pointer (`r7')
+ sr status register
+ sz size; `.b' or `.w'. If omitted, default `.w'
+
+ ldc[.b] ea,crb bcc[.w] pcrel16
+ ldc[.w] ea,sr bcc[.b] pcrel8
+ add[:q] sz qim,ea_noimm bhs[.w] pcrel16
+ add[:g] sz ea,rd bhs[.b] pcrel8
+ adds sz ea,rd bcs[.w] pcrel16
+ addx sz ea,rd bcs[.b] pcrel8
+ and sz ea,rd blo[.w] pcrel16
+ andc[.b] imm8,crb blo[.b] pcrel8
+ andc[.w] imm16,sr bne[.w] pcrel16
+ bpt bne[.b] pcrel8
+ bra[.w] pcrel16 beq[.w] pcrel16
+ bra[.b] pcrel8 beq[.b] pcrel8
+ bt[.w] pcrel16 bvc[.w] pcrel16
+ bt[.b] pcrel8 bvc[.b] pcrel8
+ brn[.w] pcrel16 bvs[.w] pcrel16
+ brn[.b] pcrel8 bvs[.b] pcrel8
+ bf[.w] pcrel16 bpl[.w] pcrel16
+ bf[.b] pcrel8 bpl[.b] pcrel8
+ bhi[.w] pcrel16 bmi[.w] pcrel16
+ bhi[.b] pcrel8 bmi[.b] pcrel8
+ bls[.w] pcrel16 bge[.w] pcrel16
+ bls[.b] pcrel8 bge[.b] pcrel8
+
+ blt[.w] pcrel16 mov[:g][.b] imm8,ea_mem
+ blt[.b] pcrel8 mov[:g][.w] imm16,ea_mem
+ bgt[.w] pcrel16 movfpe[.b] ea,rd
+ bgt[.b] pcrel8 movtpe[.b] rs,ea_noimm
+ ble[.w] pcrel16 mulxu sz ea,rd
+ ble[.b] pcrel8 neg sz ea
+ bclr sz imm4,ea_noimm nop
+ bclr sz rs,ea_noimm not sz ea
+ bnot sz imm4,ea_noimm or sz ea,rd
+ bnot sz rs,ea_noimm orc[.b] imm8,crb
+ bset sz imm4,ea_noimm orc[.w] imm16,sr
+ bset sz rs,ea_noimm pjmp abs24
+ bsr[.b] pcrel8 pjmp @rd
+ bsr[.w] pcrel16 pjsr abs24
+ btst sz imm4,ea_noimm pjsr @rd
+ btst sz rs,ea_noimm prtd imm8
+ clr sz ea prtd imm16
+ cmp[:e][.b] imm8,rd prts
+ cmp[:i][.w] imm16,rd rotl sz ea
+ cmp[:g].b imm8,ea_noimm rotr sz ea
+ cmp[:g][.w] imm16,ea_noimm rotxl sz ea
+ Cmp[:g] sz ea,rd rotxr sz ea
+ dadd rs,rd rtd imm8
+ divxu sz ea,rd rtd imm16
+ dsub rs,rd rts
+ exts[.b] rd scb/f rs,pcrel8
+ extu[.b] rd scb/ne rs,pcrel8
+ jmp @rd scb/eq rs,pcrel8
+ jmp @(imm8,rd) shal sz ea
+ jmp @(imm16,rd) shar sz ea
+ jmp abs16 shll sz ea
+ jsr @rd shlr sz ea
+ jsr @(imm8,rd) sleep
+ jsr @(imm16,rd) stc[.b] crb,ea_noimm
+ jsr abs16 stc[.w] sr,ea_noimm
+ ldm @sp+,(rlist) stm (rlist),@-sp
+ link fp,imm8 sub sz ea,rd
+ link fp,imm16 subs sz ea,rd
+ mov[:e][.b] imm8,rd subx sz ea,rd
+ mov[:i][.w] imm16,rd swap[.b] rd
+ mov[:l][.w] abs8,rd tas[.b] ea
+ mov[:l].b abs8,rd trapa imm4
+ mov[:s][.w] rs,abs8 trap/vs
+ mov[:s].b rs,abs8 tst sz ea
+ mov[:f][.w] @(disp8,fp),rd unlk fp
+ mov[:f][.w] rs,@(disp8,fp) xch[.w] rs,rd
+ mov[:f].b @(disp8,fp),rd xor sz ea,rd
+ mov[:f].b rs,@(disp8,fp) xorc.b imm8,crb
+ mov[:g] sz rs,ea_mem xorc.w imm16,sr
+ mov[:g] sz ea,rd
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: SH-Dependent, Next: i960-Dependent, Prev: H8/500-Dependent, Up: Machine Dependencies
+
+Hitachi SH Dependent Features
+=============================
+
+* Menu:
+
+* SH Options:: Options
+* SH Syntax:: Syntax
+* SH Floating Point:: Floating Point
+* SH Directives:: SH Machine Directives
+* SH Opcodes:: Opcodes
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: SH Options, Next: SH Syntax, Up: SH-Dependent
+
+Options
+-------
+
+ `as' has no additional command-line options for the Hitachi SH
+family.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: SH Syntax, Next: SH Floating Point, Prev: SH Options, Up: SH-Dependent
+
+Syntax
+------
+
+* Menu:
+
+* SH-Chars:: Special Characters
+* SH-Regs:: Register Names
+* SH-Addressing:: Addressing Modes
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: SH-Chars, Next: SH-Regs, Up: SH Syntax
+
+Special Characters
+..................
+
+ `!' is the line comment character.
+
+ You can use `;' instead of a newline to separate statements.
+
+ Since `$' has no special meaning, you may use it in symbol names.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: SH-Regs, Next: SH-Addressing, Prev: SH-Chars, Up: SH Syntax
+
+Register Names
+..............
+
+ You can use the predefined symbols `r0', `r1', `r2', `r3', `r4',
+`r5', `r6', `r7', `r8', `r9', `r10', `r11', `r12', `r13', `r14', and
+`r15' to refer to the SH registers.
+
+ The SH also has these control registers:
+
+`pr'
+ procedure register (holds return address)
+
+`pc'
+ program counter
+
+`mach'
+`macl'
+ high and low multiply accumulator registers
+
+`sr'
+ status register
+
+`gbr'
+ global base register
+
+`vbr'
+ vector base register (for interrupt vectors)
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: SH-Addressing, Prev: SH-Regs, Up: SH Syntax
+
+Addressing Modes
+................
+
+ `as' understands the following addressing modes for the SH. `RN' in
+the following refers to any of the numbered registers, but *not* the
+control registers.
+
+`RN'
+ Register direct
+
+`@RN'
+ Register indirect
+
+`@-RN'
+ Register indirect with pre-decrement
+
+`@RN+'
+ Register indirect with post-increment
+
+`@(DISP, RN)'
+ Register indirect with displacement
+
+`@(R0, RN)'
+ Register indexed
+
+`@(DISP, GBR)'
+ `GBR' offset
+
+`@(R0, GBR)'
+ GBR indexed
+
+`ADDR'
+`@(DISP, PC)'
+ PC relative address (for branch or for addressing memory). The
+ `as' implementation allows you to use the simpler form ADDR
+ anywhere a PC relative address is called for; the alternate form
+ is supported for compatibility with other assemblers.
+
+`#IMM'
+ Immediate data
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: SH Floating Point, Next: SH Directives, Prev: SH Syntax, Up: SH-Dependent
+
+Floating Point
+--------------
+
+ The SH family uses IEEE floating-point numbers.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: SH Directives, Next: SH Opcodes, Prev: SH Floating Point, Up: SH-Dependent
+
+SH Machine Directives
+---------------------
+
+ `as' has no machine-dependent directives for the SH.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: SH Opcodes, Prev: SH Directives, Up: SH-Dependent
+
+Opcodes
+-------
+
+ For detailed information on the SH machine instruction set, see
+`SH-Microcomputer User's Manual' (Hitachi Micro Systems, Inc.).
+
+ `as' implements all the standard SH opcodes. No additional
+pseudo-instructions are needed on this family. Note, however, that
+because `as' supports a simpler form of PC-relative addressing, you may
+simply write (for example)
+
+ mov.l bar,r0
+
+where other assemblers might require an explicit displacement to `bar'
+from the program counter:
+
+ mov.l @(DISP, PC)
+
+ Here is a summary of SH opcodes:
+
+ Legend:
+ Rn a numbered register
+ Rm another numbered register
+ #imm immediate data
+ disp displacement
+ disp8 8-bit displacement
+ disp12 12-bit displacement
+
+ add #imm,Rn lds.l @Rn+,PR
+ add Rm,Rn mac.w @Rm+,@Rn+
+ addc Rm,Rn mov #imm,Rn
+ addv Rm,Rn mov Rm,Rn
+ and #imm,R0 mov.b Rm,@(R0,Rn)
+ and Rm,Rn mov.b Rm,@-Rn
+ and.b #imm,@(R0,GBR) mov.b Rm,@Rn
+ bf disp8 mov.b @(disp,Rm),R0
+ bra disp12 mov.b @(disp,GBR),R0
+ bsr disp12 mov.b @(R0,Rm),Rn
+ bt disp8 mov.b @Rm+,Rn
+ clrm mov.b @Rm,Rn
+ clrt mov.b R0,@(disp,Rm)
+ cmp/eq #imm,R0 mov.b R0,@(disp,GBR)
+ cmp/eq Rm,Rn mov.l Rm,@(disp,Rn)
+ cmp/ge Rm,Rn mov.l Rm,@(R0,Rn)
+ cmp/gt Rm,Rn mov.l Rm,@-Rn
+ cmp/hi Rm,Rn mov.l Rm,@Rn
+ cmp/hs Rm,Rn mov.l @(disp,Rn),Rm
+ cmp/pl Rn mov.l @(disp,GBR),R0
+ cmp/pz Rn mov.l @(disp,PC),Rn
+ cmp/str Rm,Rn mov.l @(R0,Rm),Rn
+ div0s Rm,Rn mov.l @Rm+,Rn
+ div0u mov.l @Rm,Rn
+ div1 Rm,Rn mov.l R0,@(disp,GBR)
+ exts.b Rm,Rn mov.w Rm,@(R0,Rn)
+ exts.w Rm,Rn mov.w Rm,@-Rn
+ extu.b Rm,Rn mov.w Rm,@Rn
+ extu.w Rm,Rn mov.w @(disp,Rm),R0
+ jmp @Rn mov.w @(disp,GBR),R0
+ jsr @Rn mov.w @(disp,PC),Rn
+ ldc Rn,GBR mov.w @(R0,Rm),Rn
+ ldc Rn,SR mov.w @Rm+,Rn
+ ldc Rn,VBR mov.w @Rm,Rn
+ ldc.l @Rn+,GBR mov.w R0,@(disp,Rm)
+ ldc.l @Rn+,SR mov.w R0,@(disp,GBR)
+ ldc.l @Rn+,VBR mova @(disp,PC),R0
+ lds Rn,MACH movt Rn
+ lds Rn,MACL muls Rm,Rn
+ lds Rn,PR mulu Rm,Rn
+ lds.l @Rn+,MACH neg Rm,Rn
+ lds.l @Rn+,MACL negc Rm,Rn
+
+ nop stc VBR,Rn
+ not Rm,Rn stc.l GBR,@-Rn
+ or #imm,R0 stc.l SR,@-Rn
+ or Rm,Rn stc.l VBR,@-Rn
+ or.b #imm,@(R0,GBR) sts MACH,Rn
+ rotcl Rn sts MACL,Rn
+ rotcr Rn sts PR,Rn
+ rotl Rn sts.l MACH,@-Rn
+ rotr Rn sts.l MACL,@-Rn
+ rte sts.l PR,@-Rn
+ rts sub Rm,Rn
+ sett subc Rm,Rn
+ shal Rn subv Rm,Rn
+ shar Rn swap.b Rm,Rn
+ shll Rn swap.w Rm,Rn
+ shll16 Rn tas.b @Rn
+ shll2 Rn trapa #imm
+ shll8 Rn tst #imm,R0
+ shlr Rn tst Rm,Rn
+ shlr16 Rn tst.b #imm,@(R0,GBR)
+ shlr2 Rn xor #imm,R0
+ shlr8 Rn xor Rm,Rn
+ sleep xor.b #imm,@(R0,GBR)
+ stc GBR,Rn xtrct Rm,Rn
+ stc SR,Rn
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: i960-Dependent, Next: M68K-Dependent, Prev: SH-Dependent, Up: Machine Dependencies
+
+Intel 80960 Dependent Features
+==============================
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Options-i960:: i960 Command-line Options
+* Floating Point-i960:: Floating Point
+* Directives-i960:: i960 Machine Directives
+* Opcodes for i960:: i960 Opcodes
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Options-i960, Next: Floating Point-i960, Up: i960-Dependent
+
+i960 Command-line Options
+-------------------------
+
+`-ACA | -ACA_A | -ACB | -ACC | -AKA | -AKB | -AKC | -AMC'
+ Select the 80960 architecture. Instructions or features not
+ supported by the selected architecture cause fatal errors.
+
+ `-ACA' is equivalent to `-ACA_A'; `-AKC' is equivalent to `-AMC'.
+ Synonyms are provided for compatibility with other tools.
+
+ If none of these options is specified, `as' will generate code for
+ any instruction or feature that is supported by *some* version of
+ the 960 (even if this means mixing architectures!). In principle,
+ `as' will attempt to deduce the minimal sufficient processor type
+ if none is specified; depending on the object code format, the
+ processor type may be recorded in the object file. If it is
+ critical that the `as' output match a specific architecture,
+ specify that architecture explicitly.
+
+`-b'
+ Add code to collect information about conditional branches taken,
+ for later optimization using branch prediction bits. (The
+ conditional branch instructions have branch prediction bits in the
+ CA, CB, and CC architectures.) If BR represents a conditional
+ branch instruction, the following represents the code generated by
+ the assembler when `-b' is specified:
+
+ call INCREMENT ROUTINE
+ .word 0 # pre-counter
+ Label: BR
+ call INCREMENT ROUTINE
+ .word 0 # post-counter
+
+ The counter following a branch records the number of times that
+ branch was *not* taken; the differenc between the two counters is
+ the number of times the branch *was* taken.
+
+ A table of every such `Label' is also generated, so that the
+ external postprocessor `gbr960' (supplied by Intel) can locate all
+ the counters. This table is always labelled `__BRANCH_TABLE__';
+ this is a local symbol to permit collecting statistics for many
+ separate object files. The table is word aligned, and begins with
+ a two-word header. The first word, initialized to 0, is used in
+ maintaining linked lists of branch tables. The second word is a
+ count of the number of entries in the table, which follow
+ immediately: each is a word, pointing to one of the labels
+ illustrated above.
+
+ +------------+------------+------------+ ... +------------+
+ | | | | | |
+ | *NEXT | COUNT: N | *BRLAB 1 | | *BRLAB N |
+ | | | | | |
+ +------------+------------+------------+ ... +------------+
+
+ __BRANCH_TABLE__ layout
+
+ The first word of the header is used to locate multiple branch
+ tables, since each object file may contain one. Normally the links
+ are maintained with a call to an initialization routine, placed at
+ the beginning of each function in the file. The GNU C compiler
+ will generate these calls automatically when you give it a `-b'
+ option. For further details, see the documentation of `gbr960'.
+
+`-norelax'
+ Normally, Compare-and-Branch instructions with targets that require
+ displacements greater than 13 bits (or that have external targets)
+ are replaced with the corresponding compare (or `chkbit') and
+ branch instructions. You can use the `-norelax' option to specify
+ that `as' should generate errors instead, if the target
+ displacement is larger than 13 bits.
+
+ This option does not affect the Compare-and-Jump instructions; the
+ code emitted for them is *always* adjusted when necessary
+ (depending on displacement size), regardless of whether you use
+ `-norelax'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Floating Point-i960, Next: Directives-i960, Prev: Options-i960, Up: i960-Dependent
+
+Floating Point
+--------------
+
+ `as' generates IEEE floating-point numbers for the directives
+`.float', `.double', `.extended', and `.single'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Directives-i960, Next: Opcodes for i960, Prev: Floating Point-i960, Up: i960-Dependent
+
+i960 Machine Directives
+-----------------------
+
+`.bss SYMBOL, LENGTH, ALIGN'
+ Reserve LENGTH bytes in the bss section for a local SYMBOL,
+ aligned to the power of two specified by ALIGN. LENGTH and ALIGN
+ must be positive absolute expressions. This directive differs
+ from `.lcomm' only in that it permits you to specify an alignment.
+ *Note `.lcomm': Lcomm.
+
+`.extended FLONUMS'
+ `.extended' expects zero or more flonums, separated by commas; for
+ each flonum, `.extended' emits an IEEE extended-format (80-bit)
+ floating-point number.
+
+`.leafproc CALL-LAB, BAL-LAB'
+ You can use the `.leafproc' directive in conjunction with the
+ optimized `callj' instruction to enable faster calls of leaf
+ procedures. If a procedure is known to call no other procedures,
+ you may define an entry point that skips procedure prolog code
+ (and that does not depend on system-supplied saved context), and
+ declare it as the BAL-LAB using `.leafproc'. If the procedure
+ also has an entry point that goes through the normal prolog, you
+ can specify that entry point as CALL-LAB.
+
+ A `.leafproc' declaration is meant for use in conjunction with the
+ optimized call instruction `callj'; the directive records the data
+ needed later to choose between converting the `callj' into a `bal'
+ or a `call'.
+
+ CALL-LAB is optional; if only one argument is present, or if the
+ two arguments are identical, the single argument is assumed to be
+ the `bal' entry point.
+
+`.sysproc NAME, INDEX'
+ The `.sysproc' directive defines a name for a system procedure.
+ After you define it using `.sysproc', you can use NAME to refer to
+ the system procedure identified by INDEX when calling procedures
+ with the optimized call instruction `callj'.
+
+ Both arguments are required; INDEX must be between 0 and 31
+ (inclusive).
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Opcodes for i960, Prev: Directives-i960, Up: i960-Dependent
+
+i960 Opcodes
+------------
+
+ All Intel 960 machine instructions are supported; *note i960
+Command-line Options: Options-i960. for a discussion of selecting the
+instruction subset for a particular 960 architecture.
+
+ Some opcodes are processed beyond simply emitting a single
+corresponding instruction: `callj', and Compare-and-Branch or
+Compare-and-Jump instructions with target displacements larger than 13
+bits.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* callj-i960:: `callj'
+* Compare-and-branch-i960:: Compare-and-Branch
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: callj-i960, Next: Compare-and-branch-i960, Up: Opcodes for i960
+
+`callj'
+.......
+
+ You can write `callj' to have the assembler or the linker determine
+the most appropriate form of subroutine call: `call', `bal', or
+`calls'. If the assembly source contains enough information--a
+`.leafproc' or `.sysproc' directive defining the operand--then `as'
+will translate the `callj'; if not, it will simply emit the `callj',
+leaving it for the linker to resolve.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Compare-and-branch-i960, Prev: callj-i960, Up: Opcodes for i960
+
+Compare-and-Branch
+..................
+
+ The 960 architectures provide combined Compare-and-Branch
+instructions that permit you to store the branch target in the lower 13
+bits of the instruction word itself. However, if you specify a branch
+target far enough away that its address won't fit in 13 bits, the
+assembler can either issue an error, or convert your Compare-and-Branch
+instruction into separate instructions to do the compare and the branch.
+
+ Whether `as' gives an error or expands the instruction depends on
+two choices you can make: whether you use the `-norelax' option, and
+whether you use a "Compare and Branch" instruction or a "Compare and
+Jump" instruction. The "Jump" instructions are *always* expanded if
+necessary; the "Branch" instructions are expanded when necessary
+*unless* you specify `-norelax'--in which case `as' gives an error
+instead.
+
+ These are the Compare-and-Branch instructions, their "Jump" variants,
+and the instruction pairs they may expand into:
+
+ Compare and
+ Branch Jump Expanded to
+ ------ ------ ------------
+ bbc chkbit; bno
+ bbs chkbit; bo
+ cmpibe cmpije cmpi; be
+ cmpibg cmpijg cmpi; bg
+ cmpibge cmpijge cmpi; bge
+ cmpibl cmpijl cmpi; bl
+ cmpible cmpijle cmpi; ble
+ cmpibno cmpijno cmpi; bno
+ cmpibne cmpijne cmpi; bne
+ cmpibo cmpijo cmpi; bo
+ cmpobe cmpoje cmpo; be
+ cmpobg cmpojg cmpo; bg
+ cmpobge cmpojge cmpo; bge
+ cmpobl cmpojl cmpo; bl
+ cmpoble cmpojle cmpo; ble
+ cmpobne cmpojne cmpo; bne
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: M68K-Dependent, Next: Sparc-Dependent, Prev: i960-Dependent, Up: Machine Dependencies
+
+M680x0 Dependent Features
+=========================
+
+* Menu:
+
+* M68K-Opts:: M680x0 Options
+* M68K-Syntax:: Syntax
+* M68K-Moto-Syntax:: Motorola Syntax
+* M68K-Float:: Floating Point
+* M68K-Directives:: 680x0 Machine Directives
+* M68K-opcodes:: Opcodes
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: M68K-Opts, Next: M68K-Syntax, Up: M68K-Dependent
+
+M680x0 Options
+--------------
+
+ The Motorola 680x0 version of `as' has two machine dependent options.
+One shortens undefined references from 32 to 16 bits, while the other
+is used to tell `as' what kind of machine it is assembling for.
+
+ You can use the `-l' option to shorten the size of references to
+undefined symbols. If the `-l' option is not given, references to
+undefined symbols will be a full long (32 bits) wide. (Since `as'
+cannot know where these symbols will end up, `as' can only allocate
+space for the linker to fill in later. Since `as' doesn't know how far
+away these symbols will be, it allocates as much space as it can.) If
+this option is given, the references will only be one word wide (16
+bits). This may be useful if you want the object file to be as small as
+possible, and you know that the relevant symbols will be less than 17
+bits away.
+
+ The 680x0 version of `as' is most frequently used to assemble
+programs for the Motorola MC68020 microprocessor. Occasionally it is
+used to assemble programs for the mostly similar, but slightly different
+MC68000 or MC68010 microprocessors. You can give `as' the options
+`-m68000', `-mc68000', `-m68010', `-mc68010', `-m68020', and `-mc68020'
+to tell it what processor is the target.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: M68K-Syntax, Next: M68K-Moto-Syntax, Prev: M68K-Opts, Up: M68K-Dependent
+
+Syntax
+------
+
+ This syntax for the Motorola 680x0 was developed at MIT.
+
+ The 680x0 version of `as' uses syntax similar to the Sun assembler.
+Intervening periods are now ignored; for example, `movl' is equivalent
+to `move.l'.
+
+ In the following table "apc" stands for any of the address registers
+(`a0' through `a7'), nothing, (`'), the Program Counter (`pc'), or the
+zero-address relative to the program counter (`zpc').
+
+ The following addressing modes are understood:
+"Immediate"
+ `#DIGITS'
+
+"Data Register"
+ `d0' through `d7'
+
+"Address Register"
+ `a0' through `a7'
+
+"Address Register Indirect"
+ `a0@' through `a7@'
+ `a7' is also known as `sp', i.e. the Stack Pointer. `a6' is also
+ known as `fp', the Frame Pointer.
+
+"Address Register Postincrement"
+ `a0@+' through `a7@+'
+
+"Address Register Predecrement"
+ `a0@-' through `a7@-'
+
+"Indirect Plus Offset"
+ `APC@(DIGITS)'
+
+"Index"
+ `APC@(DIGITS,REGISTER:SIZE:SCALE)'
+
+ or `APC@(REGISTER:SIZE:SCALE)'
+
+"Postindex"
+ `APC@(DIGITS)@(DIGITS,REGISTER:SIZE:SCALE)'
+
+ or `APC@(DIGITS)@(REGISTER:SIZE:SCALE)'
+
+"Preindex"
+ `APC@(DIGITS,REGISTER:SIZE:SCALE)@(DIGITS)'
+
+ or `APC@(REGISTER:SIZE:SCALE)@(DIGITS)'
+
+"Memory Indirect"
+ `APC@(DIGITS)@(DIGITS)'
+
+"Absolute"
+ `SYMBOL', or `DIGITS'
+
+ For some configurations, especially those where the compiler normally
+does not prepend an underscore to the names of user variables, the
+assembler requires a `%' before any use of a register name. This is
+intended to let the assembler distinguish between user variables and
+registers named `a0' through `a7', et cetera. The `%' is always
+accepted, but is only required for some configurations, notably
+`m68k-coff'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: M68K-Moto-Syntax, Next: M68K-Float, Prev: M68K-Syntax, Up: M68K-Dependent
+
+Motorola Syntax
+---------------
+
+ The standard Motorola syntax for this chip differs from the syntax
+already discussed (*note Syntax: M68K-Syntax.). `as' can accept both
+kinds of syntax, even within a single instruction. The syntaxes are
+fully compatible, because the Motorola syntax never uses the `@'
+character and the MIT syntax always does, except in cases where the
+syntaxes are identical.
+
+ In particular, you may write or generate M68K assembler with the
+following conventions:
+
+ (In the following table "apc" stands for any of the address
+registers (`a0' through `a7'), nothing, (`'), the Program Counter
+(`pc'), or the zero-address relative to the program counter (`zpc').)
+
+ The following additional addressing modes are understood:
+"Address Register Indirect"
+ `a0' through `a7'
+ `a7' is also known as `sp', i.e. the Stack Pointer. `a6' is also
+ known as `fp', the Frame Pointer.
+
+"Address Register Postincrement"
+ `(a0)+' through `(a7)+'
+
+"Address Register Predecrement"
+ `-(a0)' through `-(a7)'
+
+"Indirect Plus Offset"
+ `DIGITS(APC)'
+
+"Index"
+ `DIGITS(APC,(REGISTER.SIZE*SCALE)'
+ or `(APC,REGISTER.SIZE*SCALE)'
+ In either case, SIZE and SCALE are optional (SCALE defaults to
+ `1', SIZE defaults to `l'). SCALE can be `1', `2', `4', or `8'.
+ SIZE can be `w' or `l'. SCALE is only supported on the 68020 and
+ greater.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: M68K-Float, Next: M68K-Directives, Prev: M68K-Moto-Syntax, Up: M68K-Dependent
+
+Floating Point
+--------------
+
+ The floating point code is not too well tested, and may have subtle
+bugs in it.
+
+ Packed decimal (P) format floating literals are not supported. Feel
+free to add the code!
+
+ The floating point formats generated by directives are these.
+
+`.float'
+ `Single' precision floating point constants.
+
+`.double'
+ `Double' precision floating point constants.
+
+ There is no directive to produce regions of memory holding extended
+precision numbers, however they can be used as immediate operands to
+floating-point instructions. Adding a directive to create extended
+precision numbers would not be hard, but it has not yet seemed
+necessary.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: M68K-Directives, Next: M68K-opcodes, Prev: M68K-Float, Up: M68K-Dependent
+
+680x0 Machine Directives
+------------------------
+
+ In order to be compatible with the Sun assembler the 680x0 assembler
+understands the following directives.
+
+`.data1'
+ This directive is identical to a `.data 1' directive.
+
+`.data2'
+ This directive is identical to a `.data 2' directive.
+
+`.even'
+ This directive is identical to a `.align 1' directive.
+
+`.skip'
+ This directive is identical to a `.space' directive.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: M68K-opcodes, Prev: M68K-Directives, Up: M68K-Dependent
+
+Opcodes
+-------
+
+* Menu:
+
+* M68K-Branch:: Branch Improvement
+* M68K-Chars:: Special Characters
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: M68K-Branch, Next: M68K-Chars, Up: M68K-opcodes
+
+Branch Improvement
+..................
+
+ Certain pseudo opcodes are permitted for branch instructions. They
+expand to the shortest branch instruction that will reach the target.
+Generally these mnemonics are made by substituting `j' for `b' at the
+start of a Motorola mnemonic.
+
+ The following table summarizes the pseudo-operations. A `*' flags
+cases that are more fully described after the table:
+
+ Displacement
+ +-------------------------------------------------
+ | 68020 68000/10
+ Pseudo-Op |BYTE WORD LONG LONG non-PC relative
+ +-------------------------------------------------
+ jbsr |bsrs bsr bsrl jsr jsr
+ jra |bras bra bral jmp jmp
+ * jXX |bXXs bXX bXXl bNXs;jmpl bNXs;jmp
+ * dbXX |dbXX dbXX dbXX; bra; jmpl
+ * fjXX |fbXXw fbXXw fbXXl fbNXw;jmp
+
+ XX: condition
+ NX: negative of condition XX
+
+ `*'--see full description below
+
+`jbsr'
+`jra'
+ These are the simplest jump pseudo-operations; they always map to
+ one particular machine instruction, depending on the displacement
+ to the branch target.
+
+`jXX'
+ Here, `jXX' stands for an entire family of pseudo-operations,
+ where XX is a conditional branch or condition-code test. The full
+ list of pseudo-ops in this family is:
+ jhi jls jcc jcs jne jeq jvc
+ jvs jpl jmi jge jlt jgt jle
+
+ For the cases of non-PC relative displacements and long
+ displacements on the 68000 or 68010, `as' will issue a longer code
+ fragment in terms of NX, the opposite condition to XX. For
+ example, for the non-PC relative case:
+ jXX foo
+ gives
+ bNXs oof
+ jmp foo
+ oof:
+
+`dbXX'
+ The full family of pseudo-operations covered here is
+ dbhi dbls dbcc dbcs dbne dbeq dbvc
+ dbvs dbpl dbmi dbge dblt dbgt dble
+ dbf dbra dbt
+
+ Other than for word and byte displacements, when the source reads
+ `dbXX foo', `as' will emit
+ dbXX oo1
+ bra oo2
+ oo1:jmpl foo
+ oo2:
+
+`fjXX'
+ This family includes
+ fjne fjeq fjge fjlt fjgt fjle fjf
+ fjt fjgl fjgle fjnge fjngl fjngle fjngt
+ fjnle fjnlt fjoge fjogl fjogt fjole fjolt
+ fjor fjseq fjsf fjsne fjst fjueq fjuge
+ fjugt fjule fjult fjun
+
+ For branch targets that are not PC relative, `as' emits
+ fbNX oof
+ jmp foo
+ oof:
+ when it encounters `fjXX foo'.
+
--- /dev/null
+This is Info file as.info, produced by Makeinfo-1.55 from the input
+file ./as.texinfo.
+
+START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+* As:: The GNU assembler.
+END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+
+ This file documents the GNU Assembler "as".
+
+ Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+
+ Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
+manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
+preserved on all copies.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
+this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
+that the section entitled "GNU General Public License" is included
+exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting
+derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice
+identical to this one.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
+manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
+versions, except that the section entitled "GNU General Public License"
+may be included in a translation approved by the Free Software
+Foundation instead of in the original English.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: M68K-Chars, Prev: M68K-Branch, Up: M68K-opcodes
+
+Special Characters
+..................
+
+ The immediate character is `#' for Sun compatibility. The
+line-comment character is `|'. If a `#' appears at the beginning of a
+line, it is treated as a comment unless it looks like `# line file', in
+which case it is treated normally.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Sparc-Dependent, Next: Z8000-Dependent, Prev: M68K-Dependent, Up: Machine Dependencies
+
+SPARC Dependent Features
+========================
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Sparc-Opts:: Options
+* Sparc-Float:: Floating Point
+* Sparc-Directives:: Sparc Machine Directives
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Sparc-Opts, Next: Sparc-Float, Up: Sparc-Dependent
+
+Options
+-------
+
+ The SPARC chip family includes several successive levels (or other
+variants) of chip, using the same core instruction set, but including a
+few additional instructions at each level.
+
+ By default, `as' assumes the core instruction set (SPARC v6), but
+"bumps" the architecture level as needed: it switches to successively
+higher architectures as it encounters instructions that only exist in
+the higher levels.
+
+`-Av6 | -Av7 | -Av8 | -Asparclite'
+ Use one of the `-A' options to select one of the SPARC
+ architectures explicitly. If you select an architecture
+ explicitly, `as' reports a fatal error if it encounters an
+ instruction or feature requiring a higher level.
+
+`-bump'
+ Permit the assembler to "bump" the architecture level as required,
+ but warn whenever it is necessary to switch to another level.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Sparc-Float, Next: Sparc-Directives, Prev: Sparc-Opts, Up: Sparc-Dependent
+
+Floating Point
+--------------
+
+ The Sparc uses IEEE floating-point numbers.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Sparc-Directives, Prev: Sparc-Float, Up: Sparc-Dependent
+
+Sparc Machine Directives
+------------------------
+
+ The Sparc version of `as' supports the following additional machine
+directives:
+
+`.common'
+ This must be followed by a symbol name, a positive number, and
+ `"bss"'. This behaves somewhat like `.comm', but the syntax is
+ different.
+
+`.half'
+ This is functionally identical to `.short'.
+
+`.proc'
+ This directive is ignored. Any text following it on the same line
+ is also ignored.
+
+`.reserve'
+ This must be followed by a symbol name, a positive number, and
+ `"bss"'. This behaves somewhat like `.lcomm', but the syntax is
+ different.
+
+`.seg'
+ This must be followed by `"text"', `"data"', or `"data1"'. It
+ behaves like `.text', `.data', or `.data 1'.
+
+`.skip'
+ This is functionally identical to the `.space' directive.
+
+`.word'
+ On the Sparc, the .word directive produces 32 bit values, instead
+ of the 16 bit values it produces on many other machines.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: i386-Dependent, Prev: Z8000-Dependent, Up: Machine Dependencies
+
+80386 Dependent Features
+========================
+
+* Menu:
+
+* i386-Options:: Options
+* i386-Syntax:: AT&T Syntax versus Intel Syntax
+* i386-Opcodes:: Opcode Naming
+* i386-Regs:: Register Naming
+* i386-prefixes:: Opcode Prefixes
+* i386-Memory:: Memory References
+* i386-jumps:: Handling of Jump Instructions
+* i386-Float:: Floating Point
+* i386-Notes:: Notes
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: i386-Options, Next: i386-Syntax, Up: i386-Dependent
+
+Options
+-------
+
+ The 80386 has no machine dependent options.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: i386-Syntax, Next: i386-Opcodes, Prev: i386-Options, Up: i386-Dependent
+
+AT&T Syntax versus Intel Syntax
+-------------------------------
+
+ In order to maintain compatibility with the output of `gcc', `as'
+supports AT&T System V/386 assembler syntax. This is quite different
+from Intel syntax. We mention these differences because almost all
+80386 documents used only Intel syntax. Notable differences between
+the two syntaxes are:
+
+ * AT&T immediate operands are preceded by `$'; Intel immediate
+ operands are undelimited (Intel `push 4' is AT&T `pushl $4').
+ AT&T register operands are preceded by `%'; Intel register operands
+ are undelimited. AT&T absolute (as opposed to PC relative)
+ jump/call operands are prefixed by `*'; they are undelimited in
+ Intel syntax.
+
+ * AT&T and Intel syntax use the opposite order for source and
+ destination operands. Intel `add eax, 4' is `addl $4, %eax'. The
+ `source, dest' convention is maintained for compatibility with
+ previous Unix assemblers.
+
+ * In AT&T syntax the size of memory operands is determined from the
+ last character of the opcode name. Opcode suffixes of `b', `w',
+ and `l' specify byte (8-bit), word (16-bit), and long (32-bit)
+ memory references. Intel syntax accomplishes this by prefixes
+ memory operands (*not* the opcodes themselves) with `byte ptr',
+ `word ptr', and `dword ptr'. Thus, Intel `mov al, byte ptr FOO'
+ is `movb FOO, %al' in AT&T syntax.
+
+ * Immediate form long jumps and calls are `lcall/ljmp $SECTION,
+ $OFFSET' in AT&T syntax; the Intel syntax is `call/jmp far
+ SECTION:OFFSET'. Also, the far return instruction is `lret
+ $STACK-ADJUST' in AT&T syntax; Intel syntax is `ret far
+ STACK-ADJUST'.
+
+ * The AT&T assembler does not provide support for multiple section
+ programs. Unix style systems expect all programs to be single
+ sections.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: i386-Opcodes, Next: i386-Regs, Prev: i386-Syntax, Up: i386-Dependent
+
+Opcode Naming
+-------------
+
+ Opcode names are suffixed with one character modifiers which specify
+the size of operands. The letters `b', `w', and `l' specify byte,
+word, and long operands. If no suffix is specified by an instruction
+and it contains no memory operands then `as' tries to fill in the
+missing suffix based on the destination register operand (the last one
+by convention). Thus, `mov %ax, %bx' is equivalent to `movw %ax, %bx';
+also, `mov $1, %bx' is equivalent to `movw $1, %bx'. Note that this is
+incompatible with the AT&T Unix assembler which assumes that a missing
+opcode suffix implies long operand size. (This incompatibility does
+not affect compiler output since compilers always explicitly specify
+the opcode suffix.)
+
+ Almost all opcodes have the same names in AT&T and Intel format.
+There are a few exceptions. The sign extend and zero extend
+instructions need two sizes to specify them. They need a size to
+sign/zero extend *from* and a size to zero extend *to*. This is
+accomplished by using two opcode suffixes in AT&T syntax. Base names
+for sign extend and zero extend are `movs...' and `movz...' in AT&T
+syntax (`movsx' and `movzx' in Intel syntax). The opcode suffixes are
+tacked on to this base name, the *from* suffix before the *to* suffix.
+Thus, `movsbl %al, %edx' is AT&T syntax for "move sign extend *from*
+%al *to* %edx." Possible suffixes, thus, are `bl' (from byte to long),
+`bw' (from byte to word), and `wl' (from word to long).
+
+ The Intel-syntax conversion instructions
+
+ * `cbw' -- sign-extend byte in `%al' to word in `%ax',
+
+ * `cwde' -- sign-extend word in `%ax' to long in `%eax',
+
+ * `cwd' -- sign-extend word in `%ax' to long in `%dx:%ax',
+
+ * `cdq' -- sign-extend dword in `%eax' to quad in `%edx:%eax',
+
+are called `cbtw', `cwtl', `cwtd', and `cltd' in AT&T naming. `as'
+accepts either naming for these instructions.
+
+ Far call/jump instructions are `lcall' and `ljmp' in AT&T syntax,
+but are `call far' and `jump far' in Intel convention.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: i386-Regs, Next: i386-prefixes, Prev: i386-Opcodes, Up: i386-Dependent
+
+Register Naming
+---------------
+
+ Register operands are always prefixes with `%'. The 80386 registers
+consist of
+
+ * the 8 32-bit registers `%eax' (the accumulator), `%ebx', `%ecx',
+ `%edx', `%edi', `%esi', `%ebp' (the frame pointer), and `%esp'
+ (the stack pointer).
+
+ * the 8 16-bit low-ends of these: `%ax', `%bx', `%cx', `%dx', `%di',
+ `%si', `%bp', and `%sp'.
+
+ * the 8 8-bit registers: `%ah', `%al', `%bh', `%bl', `%ch', `%cl',
+ `%dh', and `%dl' (These are the high-bytes and low-bytes of `%ax',
+ `%bx', `%cx', and `%dx')
+
+ * the 6 section registers `%cs' (code section), `%ds' (data
+ section), `%ss' (stack section), `%es', `%fs', and `%gs'.
+
+ * the 3 processor control registers `%cr0', `%cr2', and `%cr3'.
+
+ * the 6 debug registers `%db0', `%db1', `%db2', `%db3', `%db6', and
+ `%db7'.
+
+ * the 2 test registers `%tr6' and `%tr7'.
+
+ * the 8 floating point register stack `%st' or equivalently
+ `%st(0)', `%st(1)', `%st(2)', `%st(3)', `%st(4)', `%st(5)',
+ `%st(6)', and `%st(7)'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: i386-prefixes, Next: i386-Memory, Prev: i386-Regs, Up: i386-Dependent
+
+Opcode Prefixes
+---------------
+
+ Opcode prefixes are used to modify the following opcode. They are
+used to repeat string instructions, to provide section overrides, to
+perform bus lock operations, and to give operand and address size
+(16-bit operands are specified in an instruction by prefixing what would
+normally be 32-bit operands with a "operand size" opcode prefix).
+Opcode prefixes are usually given as single-line instructions with no
+operands, and must directly precede the instruction they act upon. For
+example, the `scas' (scan string) instruction is repeated with:
+ repne
+ scas
+
+ Here is a list of opcode prefixes:
+
+ * Section override prefixes `cs', `ds', `ss', `es', `fs', `gs'.
+ These are automatically added by specifying using the
+ SECTION:MEMORY-OPERAND form for memory references.
+
+ * Operand/Address size prefixes `data16' and `addr16' change 32-bit
+ operands/addresses into 16-bit operands/addresses. Note that
+ 16-bit addressing modes (i.e. 8086 and 80286 addressing modes) are
+ not supported (yet).
+
+ * The bus lock prefix `lock' inhibits interrupts during execution of
+ the instruction it precedes. (This is only valid with certain
+ instructions; see a 80386 manual for details).
+
+ * The wait for coprocessor prefix `wait' waits for the coprocessor
+ to complete the current instruction. This should never be needed
+ for the 80386/80387 combination.
+
+ * The `rep', `repe', and `repne' prefixes are added to string
+ instructions to make them repeat `%ecx' times.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: i386-Memory, Next: i386-jumps, Prev: i386-prefixes, Up: i386-Dependent
+
+Memory References
+-----------------
+
+ An Intel syntax indirect memory reference of the form
+
+ SECTION:[BASE + INDEX*SCALE + DISP]
+
+is translated into the AT&T syntax
+
+ SECTION:DISP(BASE, INDEX, SCALE)
+
+where BASE and INDEX are the optional 32-bit base and index registers,
+DISP is the optional displacement, and SCALE, taking the values 1, 2,
+4, and 8, multiplies INDEX to calculate the address of the operand. If
+no SCALE is specified, SCALE is taken to be 1. SECTION specifies the
+optional section register for the memory operand, and may override the
+default section register (see a 80386 manual for section register
+defaults). Note that section overrides in AT&T syntax *must* have be
+preceded by a `%'. If you specify a section override which coincides
+with the default section register, `as' will *not* output any section
+register override prefixes to assemble the given instruction. Thus,
+section overrides can be specified to emphasize which section register
+is used for a given memory operand.
+
+ Here are some examples of Intel and AT&T style memory references:
+
+AT&T: `-4(%ebp)', Intel: `[ebp - 4]'
+ BASE is `%ebp'; DISP is `-4'. SECTION is missing, and the default
+ section is used (`%ss' for addressing with `%ebp' as the base
+ register). INDEX, SCALE are both missing.
+
+AT&T: `foo(,%eax,4)', Intel: `[foo + eax*4]'
+ INDEX is `%eax' (scaled by a SCALE 4); DISP is `foo'. All other
+ fields are missing. The section register here defaults to `%ds'.
+
+AT&T: `foo(,1)'; Intel `[foo]'
+ This uses the value pointed to by `foo' as a memory operand. Note
+ that BASE and INDEX are both missing, but there is only *one* `,'.
+ This is a syntactic exception.
+
+AT&T: `%gs:foo'; Intel `gs:foo'
+ This selects the contents of the variable `foo' with section
+ register SECTION being `%gs'.
+
+ Absolute (as opposed to PC relative) call and jump operands must be
+prefixed with `*'. If no `*' is specified, `as' will always choose PC
+relative addressing for jump/call labels.
+
+ Any instruction that has a memory operand *must* specify its size
+(byte, word, or long) with an opcode suffix (`b', `w', or `l',
+respectively).
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: i386-jumps, Next: i386-Float, Prev: i386-Memory, Up: i386-Dependent
+
+Handling of Jump Instructions
+-----------------------------
+
+ Jump instructions are always optimized to use the smallest possible
+displacements. This is accomplished by using byte (8-bit) displacement
+jumps whenever the target is sufficiently close. If a byte displacement
+is insufficient a long (32-bit) displacement is used. We do not support
+word (16-bit) displacement jumps (i.e. prefixing the jump instruction
+with the `addr16' opcode prefix), since the 80386 insists upon masking
+`%eip' to 16 bits after the word displacement is added.
+
+ Note that the `jcxz', `jecxz', `loop', `loopz', `loope', `loopnz'
+and `loopne' instructions only come in byte displacements, so that it
+is possible that use of these instructions (`gcc' does not use them)
+will cause the assembler to print an error message (and generate
+incorrect code). The AT&T 80386 assembler tries to get around this
+problem by expanding `jcxz foo' to
+ jcxz cx_zero
+ jmp cx_nonzero
+ cx_zero: jmp foo
+ cx_nonzero:
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: i386-Float, Next: i386-Notes, Prev: i386-jumps, Up: i386-Dependent
+
+Floating Point
+--------------
+
+ All 80387 floating point types except packed BCD are supported.
+(BCD support may be added without much difficulty). These data types
+are 16-, 32-, and 64- bit integers, and single (32-bit), double
+(64-bit), and extended (80-bit) precision floating point. Each
+supported type has an opcode suffix and a constructor associated with
+it. Opcode suffixes specify operand's data types. Constructors build
+these data types into memory.
+
+ * Floating point constructors are `.float' or `.single', `.double',
+ and `.tfloat' for 32-, 64-, and 80-bit formats. These correspond
+ to opcode suffixes `s', `l', and `t'. `t' stands for temporary
+ real, and that the 80387 only supports this format via the `fldt'
+ (load temporary real to stack top) and `fstpt' (store temporary
+ real and pop stack) instructions.
+
+ * Integer constructors are `.word', `.long' or `.int', and `.quad'
+ for the 16-, 32-, and 64-bit integer formats. The corresponding
+ opcode suffixes are `s' (single), `l' (long), and `q' (quad). As
+ with the temporary real format the 64-bit `q' format is only
+ present in the `fildq' (load quad integer to stack top) and
+ `fistpq' (store quad integer and pop stack) instructions.
+
+ Register to register operations do not require opcode suffixes, so
+that `fst %st, %st(1)' is equivalent to `fstl %st, %st(1)'.
+
+ Since the 80387 automatically synchronizes with the 80386 `fwait'
+instructions are almost never needed (this is not the case for the
+80286/80287 and 8086/8087 combinations). Therefore, `as' suppresses
+the `fwait' instruction whenever it is implicitly selected by one of
+the `fn...' instructions. For example, `fsave' and `fnsave' are
+treated identically. In general, all the `fn...' instructions are made
+equivalent to `f...' instructions. If `fwait' is desired it must be
+explicitly coded.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: i386-Notes, Prev: i386-Float, Up: i386-Dependent
+
+Notes
+-----
+
+ There is some trickery concerning the `mul' and `imul' instructions
+that deserves mention. The 16-, 32-, and 64-bit expanding multiplies
+(base opcode `0xf6'; extension 4 for `mul' and 5 for `imul') can be
+output only in the one operand form. Thus, `imul %ebx, %eax' does
+*not* select the expanding multiply; the expanding multiply would
+clobber the `%edx' register, and this would confuse `gcc' output. Use
+`imul %ebx' to get the 64-bit product in `%edx:%eax'.
+
+ We have added a two operand form of `imul' when the first operand is
+an immediate mode expression and the second operand is a register.
+This is just a shorthand, so that, multiplying `%eax' by 69, for
+example, can be done with `imul $69, %eax' rather than `imul $69, %eax,
+%eax'.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Z8000-Dependent, Next: i386-Dependent, Prev: Sparc-Dependent, Up: Machine Dependencies
+
+Z8000 Dependent Features
+========================
+
+ The Z8000 as supports both members of the Z8000 family: the
+unsegmented Z8002, with 16 bit addresses, and the segmented Z8001 with
+24 bit addresses.
+
+ When the assembler is in unsegmented mode (specified with the
+`unsegm' directive), an address will take up one word (16 bit) sized
+register. When the assembler is in segmented mode (specified with the
+`segm' directive), a 24-bit address takes up a long (32 bit) register.
+*Note Assembler Directives for the Z8000: Z8000 Directives, for a list
+of other Z8000 specific assembler directives.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Z8000 Options:: No special command-line options for Z8000
+* Z8000 Syntax:: Assembler syntax for the Z8000
+* Z8000 Directives:: Special directives for the Z8000
+* Z8000 Opcodes:: Opcodes
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Z8000 Options, Next: Z8000 Syntax, Up: Z8000-Dependent
+
+Options
+-------
+
+ `as' has no additional command-line options for the Zilog Z8000
+family.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Z8000 Syntax, Next: Z8000 Directives, Prev: Z8000 Options, Up: Z8000-Dependent
+
+Syntax
+------
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Z8000-Chars:: Special Characters
+* Z8000-Regs:: Register Names
+* Z8000-Addressing:: Addressing Modes
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Z8000-Chars, Next: Z8000-Regs, Up: Z8000 Syntax
+
+Special Characters
+..................
+
+ `!' is the line comment character.
+
+ You can use `;' instead of a newline to separate statements.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Z8000-Regs, Next: Z8000-Addressing, Prev: Z8000-Chars, Up: Z8000 Syntax
+
+Register Names
+..............
+
+ The Z8000 has sixteen 16 bit registers, numbered 0 to 15. You can
+refer to different sized groups of registers by register number, with
+the prefix `r' for 16 bit registers, `rr' for 32 bit registers and `rq'
+for 64 bit registers. You can also refer to the contents of the first
+eight (of the sixteen 16 bit registers) by bytes. They are named `rNh'
+and `rNl'.
+
+*byte registers*
+ r0l r0h r1h r1l r2h r2l r3h r3l
+ r4h r4l r5h r5l r6h r6l r7h r7l
+*word registers*
+ r0 r1 r2 r3 r4 r5 r6 r7 r8 r9 r10 r11 r12 r13 r14 r15
+*long word registers*
+ rr0 rr2 rr4 rr6 rr8 rr10 rr12 rr14
+*quad word registers*
+ rq0 rq4 rq8 rq12
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Z8000-Addressing, Prev: Z8000-Regs, Up: Z8000 Syntax
+
+Addressing Modes
+................
+
+ as understands the following addressing modes for the Z8000:
+
+`rN'
+ Register direct
+
+`@rN'
+ Indirect register
+
+`ADDR'
+ Direct: the 16 bit or 24 bit address (depending on whether the
+ assembler is in segmented or unsegmented mode) of the operand is
+ in the instruction.
+
+`address(rN)'
+ Indexed: the 16 or 24 bit address is added to the 16 bit register
+ to produce the final address in memory of the operand.
+
+`rN(#IMM)'
+ Base Address: the 16 or 24 bit register is added to the 16 bit sign
+ extended immediate displacement to produce the final address in
+ memory of the operand.
+
+`rN(rM)'
+ Base Index: the 16 or 24 bit register rN is added to the sign
+ extended 16 bit index register rM to produce the final address in
+ memory of the operand.
+
+`#XX'
+ Immediate data XX.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Z8000 Directives, Next: Z8000 Opcodes, Prev: Z8000 Syntax, Up: Z8000-Dependent
+
+Assembler Directives for the Z8000
+----------------------------------
+
+ The Z8000 port of as includes these additional assembler directives,
+for compatibility with other Z8000 assemblers. As shown, these do not
+begin with `.' (unlike the ordinary as directives).
+
+`segm'
+ Generates code for the segmented Z8001.
+
+`unsegm'
+ Generates code for the unsegmented Z8002.
+
+`name'
+ Synonym for `.file'
+
+`global'
+ Synonum for `.global'
+
+`wval'
+ Synonym for `.word'
+
+`lval'
+ Synonym for `.long'
+
+`bval'
+ Synonym for `.byte'
+
+`sval'
+ Assemble a string. `sval' expects one string literal, delimited by
+ single quotes. It assembles each byte of the string into
+ consecutive addresses. You can use the escape sequence `%XX'
+ (where XX represents a two-digit hexadecimal number) to represent
+ the character whose ASCII value is XX. Use this feature to
+ describe single quote and other characters that may not appear in
+ string literals as themselves. For example, the C statement
+ `char *a = "he said \"it's 50% off\"";' is represented in Z8000
+ assembly language (shown with the assembler output in hex at the
+ left) as
+
+ 68652073 sval 'he said %22it%27s 50%25 off%22%00'
+ 61696420
+ 22697427
+ 73203530
+ 25206F66
+ 662200
+
+`rsect'
+ synonym for `.section'
+
+`block'
+ synonym for `.space'
+
+`even'
+ synonym for `.align 1'
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Z8000 Opcodes, Prev: Z8000 Directives, Up: Z8000-Dependent
+
+Opcodes
+-------
+
+ For detailed information on the Z8000 machine instruction set, see
+`Z8000 Technical Manual'.
+
+ The following table summarizes the opcodes and their arguments:
+
+ rs 16 bit source register
+ rd 16 bit destination register
+ rbs 8 bit source register
+ rbd 8 bit destination register
+ rrs 32 bit source register
+ rrd 32 bit destination register
+ rqs 64 bit source register
+ rqd 64 bit destination register
+ addr 16/24 bit address
+ imm immediate data
+
+ adc rd,rs clrb addr cpsir @rd,@rs,rr,cc
+ adcb rbd,rbs clrb addr(rd) cpsirb @rd,@rs,rr,cc
+ add rd,@rs clrb rbd dab rbd
+ add rd,addr com @rd dbjnz rbd,disp7
+ add rd,addr(rs) com addr dec @rd,imm4m1
+ add rd,imm16 com addr(rd) dec addr(rd),imm4m1
+ add rd,rs com rd dec addr,imm4m1
+ addb rbd,@rs comb @rd dec rd,imm4m1
+ addb rbd,addr comb addr decb @rd,imm4m1
+ addb rbd,addr(rs) comb addr(rd) decb addr(rd),imm4m1
+ addb rbd,imm8 comb rbd decb addr,imm4m1
+ addb rbd,rbs comflg flags decb rbd,imm4m1
+ addl rrd,@rs cp @rd,imm16 di i2
+ addl rrd,addr cp addr(rd),imm16 div rrd,@rs
+ addl rrd,addr(rs) cp addr,imm16 div rrd,addr
+ addl rrd,imm32 cp rd,@rs div rrd,addr(rs)
+ addl rrd,rrs cp rd,addr div rrd,imm16
+ and rd,@rs cp rd,addr(rs) div rrd,rs
+ and rd,addr cp rd,imm16 divl rqd,@rs
+ and rd,addr(rs) cp rd,rs divl rqd,addr
+ and rd,imm16 cpb @rd,imm8 divl rqd,addr(rs)
+ and rd,rs cpb addr(rd),imm8 divl rqd,imm32
+ andb rbd,@rs cpb addr,imm8 divl rqd,rrs
+ andb rbd,addr cpb rbd,@rs djnz rd,disp7
+ andb rbd,addr(rs) cpb rbd,addr ei i2
+ andb rbd,imm8 cpb rbd,addr(rs) ex rd,@rs
+ andb rbd,rbs cpb rbd,imm8 ex rd,addr
+ bit @rd,imm4 cpb rbd,rbs ex rd,addr(rs)
+ bit addr(rd),imm4 cpd rd,@rs,rr,cc ex rd,rs
+ bit addr,imm4 cpdb rbd,@rs,rr,cc exb rbd,@rs
+ bit rd,imm4 cpdr rd,@rs,rr,cc exb rbd,addr
+ bit rd,rs cpdrb rbd,@rs,rr,cc exb rbd,addr(rs)
+ bitb @rd,imm4 cpi rd,@rs,rr,cc exb rbd,rbs
+ bitb addr(rd),imm4 cpib rbd,@rs,rr,cc ext0e imm8
+ bitb addr,imm4 cpir rd,@rs,rr,cc ext0f imm8
+ bitb rbd,imm4 cpirb rbd,@rs,rr,cc ext8e imm8
+ bitb rbd,rs cpl rrd,@rs ext8f imm8
+ bpt cpl rrd,addr exts rrd
+ call @rd cpl rrd,addr(rs) extsb rd
+ call addr cpl rrd,imm32 extsl rqd
+ call addr(rd) cpl rrd,rrs halt
+ calr disp12 cpsd @rd,@rs,rr,cc in rd,@rs
+ clr @rd cpsdb @rd,@rs,rr,cc in rd,imm16
+ clr addr cpsdr @rd,@rs,rr,cc inb rbd,@rs
+ clr addr(rd) cpsdrb @rd,@rs,rr,cc inb rbd,imm16
+ clr rd cpsi @rd,@rs,rr,cc inc @rd,imm4m1
+ clrb @rd cpsib @rd,@rs,rr,cc inc addr(rd),imm4m1
+ inc addr,imm4m1 ldb rbd,rs(rx) mult rrd,addr(rs)
+ inc rd,imm4m1 ldb rd(imm16),rbs mult rrd,imm16
+ incb @rd,imm4m1 ldb rd(rx),rbs mult rrd,rs
+ incb addr(rd),imm4m1 ldctl ctrl,rs multl rqd,@rs
+ incb addr,imm4m1 ldctl rd,ctrl multl rqd,addr
+ incb rbd,imm4m1 ldd @rs,@rd,rr multl rqd,addr(rs)
+ ind @rd,@rs,ra lddb @rs,@rd,rr multl rqd,imm32
+ indb @rd,@rs,rba lddr @rs,@rd,rr multl rqd,rrs
+ inib @rd,@rs,ra lddrb @rs,@rd,rr neg @rd
+ inibr @rd,@rs,ra ldi @rd,@rs,rr neg addr
+ iret ldib @rd,@rs,rr neg addr(rd)
+ jp cc,@rd ldir @rd,@rs,rr neg rd
+ jp cc,addr ldirb @rd,@rs,rr negb @rd
+ jp cc,addr(rd) ldk rd,imm4 negb addr
+ jr cc,disp8 ldl @rd,rrs negb addr(rd)
+ ld @rd,imm16 ldl addr(rd),rrs negb rbd
+ ld @rd,rs ldl addr,rrs nop
+ ld addr(rd),imm16 ldl rd(imm16),rrs or rd,@rs
+ ld addr(rd),rs ldl rd(rx),rrs or rd,addr
+ ld addr,imm16 ldl rrd,@rs or rd,addr(rs)
+ ld addr,rs ldl rrd,addr or rd,imm16
+ ld rd(imm16),rs ldl rrd,addr(rs) or rd,rs
+ ld rd(rx),rs ldl rrd,imm32 orb rbd,@rs
+ ld rd,@rs ldl rrd,rrs orb rbd,addr
+ ld rd,addr ldl rrd,rs(imm16) orb rbd,addr(rs)
+ ld rd,addr(rs) ldl rrd,rs(rx) orb rbd,imm8
+ ld rd,imm16 ldm @rd,rs,n orb rbd,rbs
+ ld rd,rs ldm addr(rd),rs,n out @rd,rs
+ ld rd,rs(imm16) ldm addr,rs,n out imm16,rs
+ ld rd,rs(rx) ldm rd,@rs,n outb @rd,rbs
+ lda rd,addr ldm rd,addr(rs),n outb imm16,rbs
+ lda rd,addr(rs) ldm rd,addr,n outd @rd,@rs,ra
+ lda rd,rs(imm16) ldps @rs outdb @rd,@rs,rba
+ lda rd,rs(rx) ldps addr outib @rd,@rs,ra
+ ldar rd,disp16 ldps addr(rs) outibr @rd,@rs,ra
+ ldb @rd,imm8 ldr disp16,rs pop @rd,@rs
+ ldb @rd,rbs ldr rd,disp16 pop addr(rd),@rs
+ ldb addr(rd),imm8 ldrb disp16,rbs pop addr,@rs
+ ldb addr(rd),rbs ldrb rbd,disp16 pop rd,@rs
+ ldb addr,imm8 ldrl disp16,rrs popl @rd,@rs
+ ldb addr,rbs ldrl rrd,disp16 popl addr(rd),@rs
+ ldb rbd,@rs mbit popl addr,@rs
+ ldb rbd,addr mreq rd popl rrd,@rs
+ ldb rbd,addr(rs) mres push @rd,@rs
+ ldb rbd,imm8 mset push @rd,addr
+ ldb rbd,rbs mult rrd,@rs push @rd,addr(rs)
+ ldb rbd,rs(imm16) mult rrd,addr push @rd,imm16
+ push @rd,rs set addr,imm4 subl rrd,imm32
+ pushl @rd,@rs set rd,imm4 subl rrd,rrs
+ pushl @rd,addr set rd,rs tcc cc,rd
+ pushl @rd,addr(rs) setb @rd,imm4 tccb cc,rbd
+ pushl @rd,rrs setb addr(rd),imm4 test @rd
+ res @rd,imm4 setb addr,imm4 test addr
+ res addr(rd),imm4 setb rbd,imm4 test addr(rd)
+ res addr,imm4 setb rbd,rs test rd
+ res rd,imm4 setflg imm4 testb @rd
+ res rd,rs sinb rbd,imm16 testb addr
+ resb @rd,imm4 sinb rd,imm16 testb addr(rd)
+ resb addr(rd),imm4 sind @rd,@rs,ra testb rbd
+ resb addr,imm4 sindb @rd,@rs,rba testl @rd
+ resb rbd,imm4 sinib @rd,@rs,ra testl addr
+ resb rbd,rs sinibr @rd,@rs,ra testl addr(rd)
+ resflg imm4 sla rd,imm8 testl rrd
+ ret cc slab rbd,imm8 trdb @rd,@rs,rba
+ rl rd,imm1or2 slal rrd,imm8 trdrb @rd,@rs,rba
+ rlb rbd,imm1or2 sll rd,imm8 trib @rd,@rs,rbr
+ rlc rd,imm1or2 sllb rbd,imm8 trirb @rd,@rs,rbr
+ rlcb rbd,imm1or2 slll rrd,imm8 trtdrb @ra,@rb,rbr
+ rldb rbb,rba sout imm16,rs trtib @ra,@rb,rr
+ rr rd,imm1or2 soutb imm16,rbs trtirb @ra,@rb,rbr
+ rrb rbd,imm1or2 soutd @rd,@rs,ra trtrb @ra,@rb,rbr
+ rrc rd,imm1or2 soutdb @rd,@rs,rba tset @rd
+ rrcb rbd,imm1or2 soutib @rd,@rs,ra tset addr
+ rrdb rbb,rba soutibr @rd,@rs,ra tset addr(rd)
+ rsvd36 sra rd,imm8 tset rd
+ rsvd38 srab rbd,imm8 tsetb @rd
+ rsvd78 sral rrd,imm8 tsetb addr
+ rsvd7e srl rd,imm8 tsetb addr(rd)
+ rsvd9d srlb rbd,imm8 tsetb rbd
+ rsvd9f srll rrd,imm8 xor rd,@rs
+ rsvdb9 sub rd,@rs xor rd,addr
+ rsvdbf sub rd,addr xor rd,addr(rs)
+ sbc rd,rs sub rd,addr(rs) xor rd,imm16
+ sbcb rbd,rbs sub rd,imm16 xor rd,rs
+ sc imm8 sub rd,rs xorb rbd,@rs
+ sda rd,rs subb rbd,@rs xorb rbd,addr
+ sdab rbd,rs subb rbd,addr xorb rbd,addr(rs)
+ sdal rrd,rs subb rbd,addr(rs) xorb rbd,imm8
+ sdl rd,rs subb rbd,imm8 xorb rbd,rbs
+ sdlb rbd,rs subb rbd,rbs xorb rbd,rbs
+ sdll rrd,rs subl rrd,@rs
+ set @rd,imm4 subl rrd,addr
+ set addr(rd),imm4 subl rrd,addr(rs)
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Acknowledgements, Next: Index, Prev: Copying, Up: Top
+
+Acknowledgements
+****************
+
+ If you've contributed to `as' and your name isn't listed here, it is
+not meant as a slight. We just don't know about it. Send mail to the
+maintainer, and we'll correct the situation. Currently (June 1993), the
+maintainer is Ken Raeburn (email address `raeburn@cygnus.com').
+
+ Dean Elsner wrote the original GNU assembler for the VAX.(1)
+
+ Jay Fenlason maintained GAS for a while, adding support for
+gdb-specific debug information and the 68k series machines, most of the
+preprocessing pass, and extensive changes in messages.c, input-file.c,
+write.c.
+
+ K. Richard Pixley maintained GAS for a while, adding various
+enhancements and many bug fixes, including merging support for several
+processors, breaking GAS up to handle multiple object file format
+backends (including heavy rewrite, testing, an integration of the coff
+and b.out backends), adding configuration including heavy testing and
+verification of cross assemblers and file splits and renaming,
+converted GAS to strictly ansi C including full prototypes, added
+support for m680[34]0 & cpu32, considerable work on i960 including a
+COFF port (including considerable amounts of reverse engineering), a
+SPARC opcode file rewrite, DECstation, rs6000, and hp300hpux host
+ports, updated "know" assertions and made them work, much other
+reorganization, cleanup, and lint.
+
+ Ken Raeburn wrote the high-level BFD interface code to replace most
+of the code in format-specific I/O modules.
+
+ The original VMS support was contributed by David L. Kashtan. Eric
+Youngdale has done much work with it since.
+
+ The Intel 80386 machine description was written by Eliot Dresselhaus.
+
+ Minh Tran-Le at IntelliCorp contributed some AIX 386 support.
+
+ The Motorola 88k machine description was contributed by Devon Bowen
+of Buffalo University and Torbjorn Granlund of the Swedish Institute of
+Computer Science.
+
+ Keith Knowles at the Open Software Foundation wrote the original
+MIPS back end (tc-mips.c, tc-mips.h), and contributed Rose format
+support (which hasn't been merged in yet). Ralph Campbell worked with
+the MIPS code to support a.out format.
+
+ Support for the Zilog Z8k and Hitachi H8/300 and H8/500 processors
+(tc-z8k, tc-h8300, tc-h8500), and IEEE 695 object file format
+(obj-ieee), was written by Steve Chamberlain of Cygnus Support. Steve
+also modified the COFF back end to use BFD for some low-level
+operations, for use with the H8/300 and AMD 29k targets.
+
+ John Gilmore built the AMD 29000 support, added .include support, and
+simplified the configuration of which versions accept which pseudo-ops.
+He updated the 68k machine description so that Motorola's opcodes
+always produced fixed-size instructions (e.g. jsr), while synthetic
+instructions remained shrinkable (jbsr). John fixed many bugs,
+including true tested cross-compilation support, and one bug in
+relaxation that took a week and required the apocryphal one-bit fix.
+
+ Ian Lance Taylor of Cygnus Support merged the Motorola and MIT
+syntaxes for the 68k, completed support for some COFF targets (68k,
+i386 SVR3, and SCO Unix), and made a few other minor patches.
+
+ Steve Chamberlain made `as' able to generate listings.
+
+ Support for the HP9000/300 was contributed by Hewlett-Packard.
+
+ Support for ELF format files has been worked on by Mark Eichin of
+Cygnus Support (original, incomplete implementation for SPARC), Pete
+Hoogenboom and Jeff Law at the University of Utah (HPPA mainly),
+Michael Meissner of the Open Software Foundation (i386 mainly), and Ken
+Raeburn of Cygnus Support (sparc, and some initial 64-bit support).
+
+ Several engineers at Cygnus Support have also provided many small
+bug fixes and configuration enhancements.
+
+ Many others have contributed large or small bugfixes and
+enhancements. If you've contributed significant work and are not
+mentioned on this list, and want to be, let us know. Some of the
+history has been lost; we aren't intentionally leaving anyone out.
+
+ ---------- Footnotes ----------
+
+ (1) Any more details?
+
--- /dev/null
+This is Info file as.info, produced by Makeinfo-1.55 from the input
+file ./as.texinfo.
+
+START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+* As:: The GNU assembler.
+END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+
+ This file documents the GNU Assembler "as".
+
+ Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+
+ Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
+manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
+preserved on all copies.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
+this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
+that the section entitled "GNU General Public License" is included
+exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting
+derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice
+identical to this one.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
+manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
+versions, except that the section entitled "GNU General Public License"
+may be included in a translation approved by the Free Software
+Foundation instead of in the original English.
+
+\1f
+File: as.info, Node: Copying, Next: Acknowledgements, Prev: Machine Dependencies, Up: Top
+
+
+
+GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
+**************************
+
+ Version 2, June 1991
+
+ Copyright (C) 1989, 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc. 675
+ Mass Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
+
+ Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
+ of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
+
+Preamble
+========
+
+ The licenses for most software are designed to take away your
+freedom to share and change it. By contrast, the GNU General Public
+License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free
+software--to make sure the software is free for all its users. This
+General Public License applies to most of the Free Software
+Foundation's software and to any other program whose authors commit to
+using it. (Some other Free Software Foundation software is covered by
+the GNU Library General Public License instead.) You can apply it to
+your programs, too.
+
+ When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not
+price. Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you
+have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for
+this service if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it
+if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it in
+new free programs; and that you know you can do these things.
+
+ To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid
+anyone to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights.
+These restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you
+distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it.
+
+ For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether
+gratis or for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that
+you have. You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the
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+
+ We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software,
+and (2) offer you this license which gives you legal permission to copy,
+distribute and/or modify the software.
+
+ Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain
+that everyone understands that there is no warranty for this free
+software. If the software is modified by someone else and passed on, we
+want its recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so
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+ Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software
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+
+ TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION
+
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+ INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR
+ INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF
+ DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU
+ OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY
+ OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN
+ ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.
+
+ END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs
+=============================================
+
+ If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest
+possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it
+free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these
+terms.
+
+ To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest
+to attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively
+convey the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least
+the "copyright" line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.
+
+ ONE LINE TO GIVE THE PROGRAM'S NAME AND AN IDEA OF WHAT IT DOES.
+ Copyright (C) 19YY NAME OF AUTHOR
+
+ This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or
+ modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License
+ as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2
+ of the License, or (at your option) any later version.
+
+ This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
+ but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
+ MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the
+ GNU General Public License for more details.
+
+ You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
+ along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software
+ Foundation, Inc., 675 Mass Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
+
+ Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper
+mail.
+
+ If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like
+this when it starts in an interactive mode:
+
+ Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) 19YY NAME OF AUTHOR
+ Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details
+ type `show w'. This is free software, and you are welcome
+ to redistribute it under certain conditions; type `show c'
+ for details.
+
+ The hypothetical commands `show w' and `show c' should show the
+appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, the
+commands you use may be called something other than `show w' and `show
+c'; they could even be mouse-clicks or menu items--whatever suits your
+program.
+
+ You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or
+your school, if any, to sign a "copyright disclaimer" for the program,
+if necessary. Here is a sample; alter the names:
+
+ Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright
+ interest in the program `Gnomovision'
+ (which makes passes at compilers) written
+ by James Hacker.
+
+ SIGNATURE OF TY COON, 1 April 1989
+ Ty Coon, President of Vice
+
+ This General Public License does not permit incorporating your
+program into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine
+library, you may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary
+applications with the library. If this is what you want to do, use the
+GNU Library General Public License instead of this License.
+
--- /dev/null
+This is Info file ld.info, produced by Makeinfo-1.55 from the input
+file ./ld.texinfo.
+
+START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+* Ld:: The GNU linker.
+END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+
+ This file documents the GNU linker LD.
+
+ Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+
+ Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
+manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
+preserved on all copies.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
+this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
+that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms
+of a permission notice identical to this one.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
+manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
+versions.
+
+\1f
+Indirect:
+ld.info-1: 857
+ld.info-2: 49400
+\1f
+Tag Table:
+(Indirect)
+Node: Top\7f857
+Node: Overview\7f1330
+Node: Invocation\7f2478
+Node: Options\7f2886
+Node: Environment\7f20209
+Node: Commands\7f21154
+Node: Scripts\7f22148
+Node: Expressions\7f23246
+Node: Integers\7f24173
+Node: Symbols\7f25012
+Node: Location Counter\7f25572
+Node: Operators\7f26768
+Node: Evaluation\7f27678
+Node: Assignment\7f28373
+Node: Arithmetic Functions\7f31454
+Node: MEMORY\7f35234
+Node: SECTIONS\7f37821
+Node: Section Definition\7f39419
+Node: Section Placement\7f40867
+Node: Section Data Expressions\7f45560
+Node: Section Options\7f49400
+Node: Entry Point\7f51581
+Node: Option Commands\7f53174
+Node: Machine Dependent\7f56493
+Node: H8/300\7f56913
+Node: i960\7f57708
+Node: BFD\7f58918
+Node: BFD outline\7f62281
+Node: BFD information loss\7f63566
+Node: Canonical format\7f66074
+Node: MRI\7f70420
+Node: Index\7f74894
+\1f
+End Tag Table
--- /dev/null
+This is Info file ld.info, produced by Makeinfo-1.55 from the input
+file ./ld.texinfo.
+
+START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+* Ld:: The GNU linker.
+END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+
+ This file documents the GNU linker LD.
+
+ Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+
+ Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
+manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
+preserved on all copies.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
+this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
+that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms
+of a permission notice identical to this one.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
+manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
+versions.
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Top, Next: Overview, Prev: (DIR), Up: (DIR)
+
+Using ld
+********
+
+ This file documents the GNU linker ld.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Overview:: Overview
+* Invocation:: Invocation
+* Commands:: Command Language
+
+* Machine Dependent:: Machine Dependent Features
+
+* BFD:: BFD
+
+* MRI:: MRI Compatible Script Files
+* Index:: Index
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Overview, Next: Invocation, Prev: Top, Up: Top
+
+Overview
+********
+
+ `ld' combines a number of object and archive files, relocates their
+data and ties up symbol references. Usually the last step in compiling
+a program is to run `ld'.
+
+ `ld' accepts Linker Command Language files written in a superset of
+AT&T's Link Editor Command Language syntax, to provide explicit and
+total control over the linking process.
+
+ This version of `ld' uses the general purpose BFD libraries to
+operate on object files. This allows `ld' to read, combine, and write
+object files in many different formats--for example, COFF or `a.out'.
+Different formats may be linked together to produce any available kind
+of object file. *Note BFD:: for a list of formats supported on various
+architectures.
+
+ Aside from its flexibility, the GNU linker is more helpful than other
+linkers in providing diagnostic information. Many linkers abandon
+execution immediately upon encountering an error; whenever possible,
+`ld' continues executing, allowing you to identify other errors (or, in
+some cases, to get an output file in spite of the error).
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Invocation, Next: Commands, Prev: Overview, Up: Top
+
+Invocation
+**********
+
+ The GNU linker `ld' is meant to cover a broad range of situations,
+and to be as compatible as possible with other linkers. As a result,
+you have many choices to control its behavior.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Options:: Command Line Options
+* Environment:: Environment Variables
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Options, Next: Environment, Up: Invocation
+
+Command Line Options
+====================
+
+ Here is a summary of the options you can use on the `ld' command
+line:
+
+ ld [ -o OUTPUT ] OBJFILE...
+ [ -AARCHITECTURE ] [ -b INPUT-FORMAT ] [ -Bstatic ]
+ [ -c MRI-COMMANDFILE ] [ -d | -dc | -dp ]
+ [ -defsym SYMBOL=EXPRESSION ]
+ [ -e ENTRY ] [ -F ] [ -F FORMAT ]
+ [ -format INPUT-FORMAT ] [ -g ] [ -G SIZE ] [ --help ] [ -i ]
+ [ -lARCHIVE ] [ -LSEARCHDIR ] [ -M ] [ -Map MAPFILE ]
+ [ -m EMULATION ] [ -N | -n ] [ -noinhibit-exec ]
+ [ -oformat OUTPUT-FORMAT ] [ -R FILENAME ] [ -relax ]
+ [ -r | -Ur ] [ -S ] [ -s ] [ -sort-common ] [ -T COMMANDFILE ]
+ [ -Ttext ORG ] [ -Tdata ORG ]
+ [ -Tbss ORG ] [ -t ] [ -u SYMBOL] [-V] [-v] [ --version ]
+ [ -warn-common ] [ -ySYMBOL ] [ -X ] [-x ]
+
+ This plethora of command-line options may seem intimidating, but in
+actual practice few of them are used in any particular context. For
+instance, a frequent use of `ld' is to link standard Unix object files
+on a standard, supported Unix system. On such a system, to link a file
+`hello.o':
+
+ ld -o OUTPUT /lib/crt0.o hello.o -lc
+
+ This tells `ld' to produce a file called OUTPUT as the result of
+linking the file `/lib/crt0.o' with `hello.o' and the library `libc.a',
+which will come from the standard search directories. (See the
+discussion of the `-l' option below.)
+
+ The command-line options to `ld' may be specified in any order, and
+may be repeated at will. Repeating most options with a different
+argument will either have no further effect, or override prior
+occurrences (those further to the left on the command line) of that
+option.
+
+ The exceptions--which may meaningfully be used more than once--are
+`-A', `-b' (or its synonym `-format'), `-defsym', `-L', `-l', `-R', and
+`-u'.
+
+ The list of object files to be linked together, shown as OBJFILE...,
+may follow, precede, or be mixed in with command-line options, except
+that an OBJFILE argument may not be placed between an option and its
+argument.
+
+ Usually the linker is invoked with at least one object file, but you
+can specify other forms of binary input files using `-l', `-R', and the
+script command language. If *no* binary input files at all are
+specified, the linker does not produce any output, and issues the
+message `No input files'.
+
+ Option arguments must either follow the option letter without
+intervening whitespace, or be given as separate arguments immediately
+following the option that requires them.
+
+`-AARCHITECTURE'
+ In the current release of `ld', this option is useful only for the
+ Intel 960 family of architectures. In that `ld' configuration, the
+ ARCHITECTURE argument identifies the particular architecture in
+ the 960 family, enabling some safeguards and modifying the
+ archive-library search path. *Note `ld' and the Intel 960 family:
+ i960, for details.
+
+ Future releases of `ld' may support similar functionality for
+ other architecture families.
+
+`-b INPUT-FORMAT'
+ Specify the binary format for input object files that follow this
+ option on the command line. You don't usually need to specify
+ this, as `ld' is configured to expect as a default input format
+ the most usual format on each machine. INPUT-FORMAT is a text
+ string, the name of a particular format supported by the BFD
+ libraries. (You can list the available binary formats with
+ `objdump -i'.) `-format INPUT-FORMAT' has the same effect, as does
+ the script command `TARGET'. *Note BFD::.
+
+ You may want to use this option if you are linking files with an
+ unusual binary format. You can also use `-b' to switch formats
+ explicitly (when linking object files of different formats), by
+ including `-b INPUT-FORMAT' before each group of object files in a
+ particular format.
+
+ The default format is taken from the environment variable
+ `GNUTARGET'. *Note Environment::. You can also define the input
+ format from a script, using the command `TARGET'; see *Note Option
+ Commands::.
+
+`-Bstatic'
+ Ignored. This option is accepted for command-line compatibility
+ with the SunOS linker.
+
+`-c MRI-COMMANDFILE'
+ For compatibility with linkers produced by MRI, `ld' accepts script
+ files written in an alternate, restricted command language,
+ described in *Note MRI Compatible Script Files: MRI. Introduce
+ MRI script files with the option `-c'; use the `-T' option to run
+ linker scripts written in the general-purpose `ld' scripting
+ language. If MRI-CMDFILE does not exist, `ld' looks for it in the
+ directories specified by any `-L' options.
+
+`-d'
+`-dc'
+`-dp'
+ These three options are equivalent; multiple forms are supported
+ for compatibility with other linkers. They assign space to common
+ symbols even if a relocatable output file is specified (with
+ `-r'). The script command `FORCE_COMMON_ALLOCATION' has the same
+ effect. *Note Option Commands::.
+
+`-defsym SYMBOL=EXPRESSION'
+ Create a global symbol in the output file, containing the absolute
+ address given by EXPRESSION. You may use this option as many
+ times as necessary to define multiple symbols in the command line.
+ A limited form of arithmetic is supported for the EXPRESSION in
+ this context: you may give a hexadecimal constant or the name of
+ an existing symbol, or use `+' and `-' to add or subtract
+ hexadecimal constants or symbols. If you need more elaborate
+ expressions, consider using the linker command language from a
+ script (*note Assignment: Symbol Definitions: Assignment.).
+ *Note:* there should be no white space between SYMBOL, the equals
+ sign ("="), and EXPRESSION.
+
+`-e ENTRY'
+ Use ENTRY as the explicit symbol for beginning execution of your
+ program, rather than the default entry point. *Note Entry Point::,
+ for a discussion of defaults and other ways of specifying the
+ entry point.
+
+`-F'
+`-FFORMAT'
+ Ignored. Some older linkers used this option throughout a
+ compilation toolchain for specifying object-file format for both
+ input and output object files. The mechanisms `ld' uses for this
+ purpose (the `-b' or `-format' options for input files, `-oformat'
+ option or the `TARGET' command in linker scripts for output files,
+ the `GNUTARGET' environment variable) are more flexible, but `ld'
+ accepts the `-F' option for compatibility with scripts written to
+ call the old linker.
+
+`-format INPUT-FORMAT'
+ Synonym for `-b INPUT-FORMAT'.
+
+`-g'
+ Ignored. Provided for compatibility with other tools.
+
+`-GVALUE'
+`-G VALUE'
+ Set the maximum size of objects to be optimized using the GP
+ register to SIZE under MIPS ECOFF. Ignored for other object file
+ formats.
+
+`--help'
+ Print a summary of the command-line options on the standard output
+ and exit. This option and `--version' begin with two dashes
+ instead of one for compatibility with other GNU programs. The
+ other options start with only one dash for compatibility with
+ other linkers.
+
+`-i'
+ Perform an incremental link (same as option `-r').
+
+`-lAR'
+ Add archive file ARCHIVE to the list of files to link. This
+ option may be used any number of times. `ld' will search its
+ path-list for occurrences of `libAR.a' for every ARCHIVE specified.
+
+`-LSEARCHDIR'
+`-L SEARCHDIR'
+ Add path SEARCHDIR to the list of paths that `ld' will search for
+ archive libraries and `ld' control scripts. You may use this
+ option any number of times.
+
+ The default set of paths searched (without being specified with
+ `-L') depends on which emulation mode `ld' is using, and in some
+ cases also on how it was configured. *Note Environment::.
+
+ The paths can also be specified in a link script with the
+ `SEARCH_DIR' command.
+
+`-M'
+ Print (to the standard output) a link map--diagnostic information
+ about where symbols are mapped by `ld', and information on global
+ common storage allocation.
+
+`-Map MAPFILE'
+ Print to the file MAPFILE a link map--diagnostic information about
+ where symbols are mapped by `ld', and information on global common
+ storage allocation.
+
+`-mEMULATION'
+`-m EMULATION'
+ Emulate the EMULATION linker. You can list the available
+ emulations with the `-V' option. The default is the system for
+ which you configured `ld'.
+
+`-N'
+ Set the text and data sections to be readable and writable. Also,
+ do not page-align the data segment. If the output format supports
+ Unix style magic numbers, mark the output as `OMAGIC'.
+
+`-n'
+ Set the text segment to be read only, and mark the output as
+ `NMAGIC' if possible.
+
+`-noinhibit-exec'
+ Retain the executable output file whenever it is still usable.
+ Normally, the linker will not produce an output file if it
+ encounters errors during the link process; it exits without
+ writing an output file when it issues any error whatsoever.
+
+`-o OUTPUT'
+ Use OUTPUT as the name for the program produced by `ld'; if this
+ option is not specified, the name `a.out' is used by default. The
+ script command `OUTPUT' can also specify the output file name.
+
+`-oformat OUTPUT-FORMAT'
+ Specify the binary format for the output object file. You don't
+ usually need to specify this, as `ld' is configured to produce as
+ a default output format the most usual format on each machine.
+ oUTPUT-FORMAT is a text string, the name of a particular format
+ supported by the BFD libraries. (You can list the available binary
+ formats with `objdump -i'.) The script command `OUTPUT_FORMAT'
+ can also specify the output format, but this option overrides it.
+ *Note BFD::.
+
+`-R FILENAME'
+ Read symbol names and their addresses from FILENAME, but do not
+ relocate it or include it in the output. This allows your output
+ file to refer symbolically to absolute locations of memory defined
+ in other programs.
+
+`-relax'
+ An option with machine dependent effects. Currently this option
+ is only supported on the H8/300. *Note `ld' and the H8/300:
+ H8/300.
+
+ On some platforms, use option performs global optimizations that
+ become possible when the linker resolves addressing in the
+ program, such as relaxing address modes and synthesizing new
+ instructions in the output object file.
+
+ On platforms where this is not supported, `-relax' is accepted, but
+ ignored.
+
+`-r'
+ Generate relocatable output--i.e., generate an output file that
+ can in turn serve as input to `ld'. This is often called "partial
+ linking". As a side effect, in environments that support standard
+ Unix magic numbers, this option also sets the output file's magic
+ number to `OMAGIC'. If this option is not specified, an absolute
+ file is produced. When linking C++ programs, this option *will
+ not* resolve references to constructors; to do that, use `-Ur'.
+
+ This option does the same thing as `-i'.
+
+`-S'
+ Omit debugger symbol information (but not all symbols) from the
+ output file.
+
+`-s'
+ Omit all symbol information from the output file.
+
+`-sort-common'
+ Normally, when `ld' places the global common symbols in the
+ appropriate output sections, it sorts them by size. First come
+ all the one byte symbols, then all the two bytes, then all the
+ four bytes, and then everything else. This is to prevent gaps
+ between symbols due to alignment constraints. This option
+ disables that sorting.
+
+`-Tbss ORG'
+`-Tdata ORG'
+`-Ttext ORG'
+ Use ORG as the starting address for--respectively--the `bss',
+ `data', or the `text' segment of the output file. ORG must be a
+ single hexadecimal integer; for compatibility with other linkers,
+ you may omit the leading `0x' usually associated with hexadecimal
+ values.
+
+`-T COMMANDFILE'
+`-TCOMMANDFILE'
+ Read link commands from the file COMMANDFILE. These commands
+ completely override `ld''s default link format (rather than adding
+ to it); COMMANDFILE must specify everything necessary to describe
+ the target format. *Note Commands::. If COMMANDFILE does not
+ exist, `ld' looks for it in the directories specified by any
+ preceding `-L' options. Multiple `-T' options accumulate.
+
+`-t'
+ Print the names of the input files as `ld' processes them.
+
+`-u SYMBOL'
+ Force SYMBOL to be entered in the output file as an undefined
+ symbol. Doing this may, for example, trigger linking of
+ additional modules from standard libraries. `-u' may be repeated
+ with different option arguments to enter additional undefined
+ symbols.
+
+`-Ur'
+ For anything other than C++ programs, this option is equivalent to
+ `-r': it generates relocatable output--i.e., an output file that
+ can in turn serve as input to `ld'. When linking C++ programs,
+ `-Ur' *will* resolve references to constructors, unlike `-r'. It
+ does not work to use `-Ur' on files that were themselves linked
+ with `-Ur'; once the constructor table has been built, it can not
+ be added to. Use `-Ur' only for the last partial link, and `-r'
+ for the others.
+
+`-V'
+ Display the version number for `ld' and list the supported
+ emulations. Display which input files can and can not be opened.
+
+`-v'
+ Display the version number for `ld'.
+
+`--version'
+ Display the version number for `ld' and exit.
+
+`-warn-common'
+ Warn when a common symbol is combined with another common symbol
+ or with a symbol definition. Unix linkers allow this somewhat
+ sloppy practice, but linkers on some other operating systems do
+ not. This option allows you to find potential problems from
+ combining global symbols. Unfortunately, some C libraries use
+ this practice, so you may get some warnings about symbols in the
+ libraries as well as in your programs.
+
+ There are three kinds of global symbols, illustrated here by C
+ examples:
+
+ `int i = 1;'
+ A definition, which goes in the initialized data section of
+ the output file.
+
+ `extern int i;'
+ An undefined reference, which does not allocate space. There
+ must be either a definition or a common symbol for the
+ variable somewhere.
+
+ `int i;'
+ A common symbol. If there are only (one or more) common
+ symbols for a variable, it goes in the uninitialized data
+ area of the output file. The linker merges multiple common
+ symbols for the same variable into a single symbol. If they
+ are of different sizes, it picks the largest size. The
+ linker turns a common symbol into a declaration, if there is
+ a definition of the same variable.
+
+ The `-warn-common' option can produce five kinds of warnings. Each
+ warning consists of a pair of lines: the first describes the
+ symbol just encountered, and the second describes the previous
+ symbol encountered with the same name. One or both of the two
+ symbols will be a common symbol.
+
+ 1. Turning a common symbol into a reference, because there is
+ already a definition for the symbol.
+ FILE(SECTION): warning: common of `SYMBOL'
+ overridden by definition
+ FILE(SECTION): warning: defined here
+
+ 2. Turning a common symbol into a reference, because a later
+ definition for the symbol is encountered. This is the same
+ as the previous case, except that the symbols are encountered
+ in a different order.
+ FILE(SECTION): warning: definition of `SYMBOL'
+ overriding common
+ FILE(SECTION): warning: common is here
+
+ 3. Merging a common symbol with a previous same-sized common
+ symbol.
+ FILE(SECTION): warning: multiple common
+ of `SYMBOL'
+ FILE(SECTION): warning: previous common is here
+
+ 4. Merging a common symbol with a previous larger common symbol.
+ FILE(SECTION): warning: common of `SYMBOL'
+ overridden by larger common
+ FILE(SECTION): warning: larger common is here
+
+ 5. Merging a common symbol with a previous smaller common
+ symbol. This is the same as the previous case, except that
+ the symbols are encountered in a different order.
+ FILE(SECTION): warning: common of `SYMBOL'
+ overriding smaller common
+ FILE(SECTION): warning: smaller common is here
+
+`-X'
+ If `-s' or `-S' is also specified, delete only local symbols
+ beginning with `L'.
+
+`-x'
+ If `-s' or `-S' is also specified, delete all local symbols, not
+ just those beginning with `L'.
+
+`-ySYMBOL'
+ Print the name of each linked file in which SYMBOL appears. This
+ option may be given any number of times. On many systems it is
+ necessary to prepend an underscore.
+
+ This option is useful when you have an undefined symbol in your
+ link but don't know where the reference is coming from.
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Environment, Prev: Options, Up: Invocation
+
+Environment Variables
+=====================
+
+ You can change the behavior of `ld' with the environment variable
+`GNUTARGET'.
+
+ `GNUTARGET' determines the input-file object format if you don't use
+`-b' (or its synonym `-format'). Its value should be one of the BFD
+names for an input format (*note BFD::.). If there is no `GNUTARGET'
+in the environment, `ld' uses the natural format of the target. If
+`GNUTARGET' is set to `default' then BFD attempts to discover the input
+format by examining binary input files; this method often succeeds, but
+there are potential ambiguities, since there is no method of ensuring
+that the magic number used to specify object-file formats is unique.
+However, the configuration procedure for BFD on each system places the
+conventional format for that system first in the search-list, so
+ambiguities are resolved in favor of convention.
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Commands, Next: Machine Dependent, Prev: Invocation, Up: Top
+
+Command Language
+****************
+
+ The command language provides explicit control over the link process,
+allowing complete specification of the mapping between the linker's
+input files and its output. It controls:
+ * input files
+
+ * file formats
+
+ * output file layout
+
+ * addresses of sections
+
+ * placement of common blocks
+
+ You may supply a command file (also known as a link script) to the
+linker either explicitly through the `-T' option, or implicitly as an
+ordinary file. If the linker opens a file which it cannot recognize as
+a supported object or archive format, it reports an error.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Scripts:: Linker Scripts
+* Expressions:: Expressions
+* MEMORY:: MEMORY Command
+* SECTIONS:: SECTIONS Command
+* Entry Point:: The Entry Point
+* Option Commands:: Option Commands
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Scripts, Next: Expressions, Up: Commands
+
+Linker Scripts
+==============
+
+ The `ld' command language is a collection of statements; some are
+simple keywords setting a particular option, some are used to select and
+group input files or name output files; and two statement types have a
+fundamental and pervasive impact on the linking process.
+
+ The most fundamental command of the `ld' command language is the
+`SECTIONS' command (*note SECTIONS::.). Every meaningful command
+script must have a `SECTIONS' command: it specifies a "picture" of the
+output file's layout, in varying degrees of detail. No other command
+is required in all cases.
+
+ The `MEMORY' command complements `SECTIONS' by describing the
+available memory in the target architecture. This command is optional;
+if you don't use a `MEMORY' command, `ld' assumes sufficient memory is
+available in a contiguous block for all output. *Note MEMORY::.
+
+ You may include comments in linker scripts just as in C: delimited
+by `/*' and `*/'. As in C, comments are syntactically equivalent to
+whitespace.
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Expressions, Next: MEMORY, Prev: Scripts, Up: Commands
+
+Expressions
+===========
+
+ Many useful commands involve arithmetic expressions. The syntax for
+expressions in the command language is identical to that of C
+expressions, with the following features:
+ * All expressions evaluated as integers and are of "long" or
+ "unsigned long" type.
+
+ * All constants are integers.
+
+ * All of the C arithmetic operators are provided.
+
+ * You may reference, define, and create global variables.
+
+ * You may call special purpose built-in functions.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Integers:: Integers
+* Symbols:: Symbol Names
+* Location Counter:: The Location Counter
+* Operators:: Operators
+* Evaluation:: Evaluation
+* Assignment:: Assignment: Defining Symbols
+* Arithmetic Functions:: Built-In Functions
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Integers, Next: Symbols, Up: Expressions
+
+Integers
+--------
+
+ An octal integer is `0' followed by zero or more of the octal digits
+(`01234567').
+ _as_octal = 0157255;
+
+ A decimal integer starts with a non-zero digit followed by zero or
+more digits (`0123456789').
+ _as_decimal = 57005;
+
+ A hexadecimal integer is `0x' or `0X' followed by one or more
+hexadecimal digits chosen from `0123456789abcdefABCDEF'.
+ _as_hex = 0xdead;
+
+ To write a negative integer, use the prefix operator `-'; *note
+Operators::..
+ _as_neg = -57005;
+
+ Additionally the suffixes `K' and `M' may be used to scale a
+constant by `1024' or `1024*1024' respectively. For example, the
+following all refer to the same quantity:
+
+ _fourk_1 = 4K;
+ _fourk_2 = 4096;
+ _fourk_3 = 0x1000;
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Symbols, Next: Location Counter, Prev: Integers, Up: Expressions
+
+Symbol Names
+------------
+
+ Unless quoted, symbol names start with a letter, underscore, point or
+hyphen and may include any letters, underscores, digits, points, and
+minus signs. Unquoted symbol names must not conflict with any
+keywords. You can specify a symbol which contains odd characters or has
+the same name as a keyword, by surrounding the symbol name in double
+quotes:
+ "SECTION" = 9;
+ "with a space" = "also with a space" + 10;
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Location Counter, Next: Operators, Prev: Symbols, Up: Expressions
+
+The Location Counter
+--------------------
+
+ The special linker variable "dot" `.' always contains the current
+output location counter. Since the `.' always refers to a location in
+an output section, it must always appear in an expression within a
+`SECTIONS' command. The `.' symbol may appear anywhere that an ordinary
+symbol is allowed in an expression, but its assignments have a side
+effect. Assigning a value to the `.' symbol will cause the location
+counter to be moved. This may be used to create holes in the output
+section. The location counter may never be moved backwards.
+ SECTIONS
+ {
+ output :
+ {
+ file1(.text)
+ . = . + 1000;
+ file2(.text)
+ . += 1000;
+ file3(.text)
+ } = 0x1234;
+ }
+
+In the previous example, `file1' is located at the beginning of the
+output section, then there is a 1000 byte gap. Then `file2' appears,
+also with a 1000 byte gap following before `file3' is loaded. The
+notation `= 0x1234' specifies what data to write in the gaps (*note
+Section Options::.).
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Operators, Next: Evaluation, Prev: Location Counter, Up: Expressions
+
+Operators
+---------
+
+ The linker recognizes the standard C set of arithmetic operators,
+with the standard bindings and precedence levels:
+ precedence associativity Operators Notes
+ (highest)
+ 1 left ! - ~ (1)
+ 2 left * / %
+ 3 left + -
+ 4 left >> <<
+ 5 left == != > < <= >=
+ 6 left &
+ 7 left |
+ 8 left &&
+ 9 left ||
+ 10 right ? :
+ 11 right &= += -= *= /= (2)
+ (lowest)
+ Notes: (1) Prefix operators (2) *Note Assignment::
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Evaluation, Next: Assignment, Prev: Operators, Up: Expressions
+
+Evaluation
+----------
+
+ The linker uses "lazy evaluation" for expressions; it only calculates
+an expression when absolutely necessary. The linker needs the value of
+the start address, and the lengths of memory regions, in order to do any
+linking at all; these values are computed as soon as possible when the
+linker reads in the command file. However, other values (such as symbol
+values) are not known or needed until after storage allocation. Such
+values are evaluated later, when other information (such as the sizes of
+output sections) is available for use in the symbol assignment
+expression.
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Assignment, Next: Arithmetic Functions, Prev: Evaluation, Up: Expressions
+
+Assignment: Defining Symbols
+----------------------------
+
+ You may create global symbols, and assign values (addresses) to
+global symbols, using any of the C assignment operators:
+
+`SYMBOL = EXPRESSION ;'
+`SYMBOL &= EXPRESSION ;'
+`SYMBOL += EXPRESSION ;'
+`SYMBOL -= EXPRESSION ;'
+`SYMBOL *= EXPRESSION ;'
+`SYMBOL /= EXPRESSION ;'
+ Two things distinguish assignment from other operators in `ld'
+expressions.
+ * Assignment may only be used at the root of an expression; `a=b+3;'
+ is allowed, but `a+b=3;' is an error.
+
+ * You must place a trailing semicolon (";") at the end of an
+ assignment statement.
+
+ Assignment statements may appear:
+ * as commands in their own right in an `ld' script; or
+
+ * as independent statements within a `SECTIONS' command; or
+
+ * as part of the contents of a section definition in a `SECTIONS'
+ command.
+
+ The first two cases are equivalent in effect--both define a symbol
+with an absolute address. The last case defines a symbol whose address
+is relative to a particular section (*note SECTIONS::.).
+
+ When a linker expression is evaluated and assigned to a variable, it
+is given either an absolute or a relocatable type. An absolute
+expression type is one in which the symbol contains the value that it
+will have in the output file; a relocatable expression type is one in
+which the value is expressed as a fixed offset from the base of a
+section.
+
+ The type of the expression is controlled by its position in the
+script file. A symbol assigned within a section definition is created
+relative to the base of the section; a symbol assigned in any other
+place is created as an absolute symbol. Since a symbol created within a
+section definition is relative to the base of the section, it will
+remain relocatable if relocatable output is requested. A symbol may be
+created with an absolute value even when assigned to within a section
+definition by using the absolute assignment function `ABSOLUTE'. For
+example, to create an absolute symbol whose address is the last byte of
+an output section named `.data':
+ SECTIONS{ ...
+ .data :
+ {
+ *(.data)
+ _edata = ABSOLUTE(.) ;
+ }
+ ... }
+
+ The linker tries to put off the evaluation of an assignment until all
+the terms in the source expression are known (*note Evaluation::.). For
+instance, the sizes of sections cannot be known until after allocation,
+so assignments dependent upon these are not performed until after
+allocation. Some expressions, such as those depending upon the location
+counter "dot", `.' must be evaluated during allocation. If the result
+of an expression is required, but the value is not available, then an
+error results. For example, a script like the following
+ SECTIONS { ...
+ text 9+this_isnt_constant :
+ { ...
+ }
+ ... }
+
+will cause the error message "`Non constant expression for initial
+address'".
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Arithmetic Functions, Prev: Assignment, Up: Expressions
+
+Arithmetic Functions
+--------------------
+
+ The command language includes a number of built-in functions for use
+in link script expressions.
+`ABSOLUTE(EXP)'
+ Return the absolute (non-relocatable, as opposed to non-negative)
+ value of the expression EXP. Primarily useful to assign an
+ absolute value to a symbol within a section definition, where
+ symbol values are normally section-relative.
+
+`ADDR(SECTION)'
+ Return the absolute address of the named SECTION. Your script must
+ previously have defined the location of that section. In the
+ following example, `symbol_1' and `symbol_2' are assigned identical
+ values:
+ SECTIONS{ ...
+ .output1 :
+ {
+ start_of_output_1 = ABSOLUTE(.);
+ ...
+ }
+ .output :
+ {
+ symbol_1 = ADDR(.output1);
+ symbol_2 = start_of_output_1;
+ }
+ ... }
+
+`ALIGN(EXP)'
+ Return the result of the current location counter (`.') aligned to
+ the next EXP boundary. EXP must be an expression whose value is a
+ power of two. This is equivalent to
+ (. + EXP - 1) & ~(EXP - 1)
+
+ `ALIGN' doesn't change the value of the location counter--it just
+ does arithmetic on it. As an example, to align the output `.data'
+ section to the next `0x2000' byte boundary after the preceding
+ section and to set a variable within the section to the next
+ `0x8000' boundary after the input sections:
+ SECTIONS{ ...
+ .data ALIGN(0x2000): {
+ *(.data)
+ variable = ALIGN(0x8000);
+ }
+ ... }
+
+ The first use of `ALIGN' in this example specifies the location of
+ a section because it is used as the optional START attribute of a
+ section definition (*note Section Options::.). The second use
+ simply defines the value of a variable.
+
+ The built-in `NEXT' is closely related to `ALIGN'.
+
+`DEFINED(SYMBOL)'
+ Return 1 if SYMBOL is in the linker global symbol table and is
+ defined, otherwise return 0. You can use this function to provide
+ default values for symbols. For example, the following
+ command-file fragment shows how to set a global symbol `begin' to
+ the first location in the `.text' section--but if a symbol called
+ `begin' already existed, its value is preserved:
+ SECTIONS{ ...
+ .text : {
+ begin = DEFINED(begin) ? begin : . ;
+ ...
+ }
+ ... }
+
+`NEXT(EXP)'
+ Return the next unallocated address that is a multiple of EXP.
+ This function is closely related to `ALIGN(EXP)'; unless you use
+ the `MEMORY' command to define discontinuous memory for the output
+ file, the two functions are equivalent.
+
+`SIZEOF(SECTION)'
+ Return the size in bytes of the named SECTION, if that section has
+ been allocated. In the following example, `symbol_1' and
+ `symbol_2' are assigned identical values:
+ SECTIONS{ ...
+ .output {
+ .start = . ;
+ ...
+ .end = . ;
+ }
+ symbol_1 = .end - .start ;
+ symbol_2 = SIZEOF(.output);
+ ... }
+
+`SIZEOF_HEADERS'
+`sizeof_headers'
+ Return the size in bytes of the output file's headers. You can
+ use this number as the start address of the first section, if you
+ choose, to facilitate paging.
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: MEMORY, Next: SECTIONS, Prev: Expressions, Up: Commands
+
+Memory Layout
+=============
+
+ The linker's default configuration permits allocation of all
+available memory. You can override this configuration by using the
+`MEMORY' command. The `MEMORY' command describes the location and size
+of blocks of memory in the target. By using it carefully, you can
+describe which memory regions may be used by the linker, and which
+memory regions it must avoid. The linker does not shuffle sections to
+fit into the available regions, but does move the requested sections
+into the correct regions and issue errors when the regions become too
+full.
+
+ A command file may contain at most one use of the `MEMORY' command;
+however, you can define as many blocks of memory within it as you wish.
+The syntax is:
+
+ MEMORY
+ {
+ NAME (ATTR) : ORIGIN = ORIGIN, LENGTH = LEN
+ ...
+ }
+
+`NAME'
+ is a name used internally by the linker to refer to the region. Any
+ symbol name may be used. The region names are stored in a separate
+ name space, and will not conflict with symbols, file names or
+ section names. Use distinct names to specify multiple regions.
+
+`(ATTR)'
+ is an optional list of attributes, permitted for compatibility
+ with the AT&T linker but not used by `ld' beyond checking that the
+ attribute list is valid. Valid attribute lists must be made up of
+ the characters "`LIRWX'". If you omit the attribute list, you may
+ omit the parentheses around it as well.
+
+`ORIGIN'
+ is the start address of the region in physical memory. It is an
+ expression that must evaluate to a constant before memory
+ allocation is performed. The keyword `ORIGIN' may be abbreviated
+ to `org' or `o' (but not, for example, `ORG').
+
+`LEN'
+ is the size in bytes of the region (an expression). The keyword
+ `LENGTH' may be abbreviated to `len' or `l'.
+
+ For example, to specify that memory has two regions available for
+allocation--one starting at 0 for 256 kilobytes, and the other starting
+at `0x40000000' for four megabytes:
+
+ MEMORY
+ {
+ rom : ORIGIN = 0, LENGTH = 256K
+ ram : org = 0x40000000, l = 4M
+ }
+
+ Once you have defined a region of memory named MEM, you can direct
+specific output sections there by using a command ending in `>MEM'
+within the `SECTIONS' command (*note Section Options::.). If the
+combined output sections directed to a region are too big for the
+region, the linker will issue an error message.
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: SECTIONS, Next: Entry Point, Prev: MEMORY, Up: Commands
+
+Specifying Output Sections
+==========================
+
+ The `SECTIONS' command controls exactly where input sections are
+placed into output sections, their order in the output file, and to
+which output sections they are allocated.
+
+ You may use at most one `SECTIONS' command in a script file, but you
+can have as many statements within it as you wish. Statements within
+the `SECTIONS' command can do one of three things:
+ * define the entry point;
+
+ * assign a value to a symbol;
+
+ * describe the placement of a named output section, and which input
+ sections go into it.
+
+ You can also use the first two operations--defining the entry point
+and defining symbols--outside the `SECTIONS' command: *note Entry
+Point::., and *note Assignment::.. They are permitted here as well for
+your convenience in reading the script, so that symbols and the entry
+point can be defined at meaningful points in your output-file layout.
+
+ When no `SECTIONS' command is given, the linker places each input
+section into an identically named output section in the order that the
+sections are first encountered in the input files. If all input
+sections are present in the first file, for example, the order of
+sections in the output file will match the order in the first input
+file.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Section Definition:: Section Definitions
+* Section Placement:: Section Placement
+* Section Data Expressions:: Section Data Expressions
+* Section Options:: Optional Section Attributes
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Section Definition, Next: Section Placement, Up: SECTIONS
+
+Section Definitions
+-------------------
+
+ The most frequently used statement in the `SECTIONS' command is the
+"section definition", which specifies the properties of an output
+section: its location, alignment, contents, fill pattern, and target
+memory region. Most of these specifications are optional; the simplest
+form of a section definition is
+ SECTIONS { ...
+ SECNAME : {
+ CONTENTS
+ }
+ ... }
+
+SECNAME is the name of the output section, and CONTENTS a specification
+of what goes there--for example, a list of input files or sections of
+input files (*note Section Placement::.). As you might assume, the
+whitespace shown is optional. You do need the colon `:' and the braces
+`{}', however.
+
+ SECNAME must meet the constraints of your output format. In formats
+which only support a limited number of sections, such as `a.out', the
+name must be one of the names supported by the format (`a.out', for
+example, allows only `.text', `.data' or `.bss'). If the output format
+supports any number of sections, but with numbers and not names (as is
+the case for Oasys), the name should be supplied as a quoted numeric
+string. A section name may consist of any sequence of characters, but
+any name which does not conform to the standard `ld' symbol name syntax
+must be quoted. *Note Symbol Names: Symbols.
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Section Placement, Next: Section Data Expressions, Prev: Section Definition, Up: SECTIONS
+
+Section Placement
+-----------------
+
+ In a section definition, you can specify the contents of an output
+section by listing particular input files, by listing particular
+input-file sections, or by a combination of the two. You can also
+place arbitrary data in the section, and define symbols relative to the
+beginning of the section.
+
+ The CONTENTS of a section definition may include any of the
+following kinds of statement. You can include as many of these as you
+like in a single section definition, separated from one another by
+whitespace.
+
+`FILENAME'
+ You may simply name a particular input file to be placed in the
+ current output section; *all* sections from that file are placed
+ in the current section definition. If the file name has already
+ been mentioned in another section definition, with an explicit
+ section name list, then only those sections which have not yet
+ been allocated are used.
+
+ To specify a list of particular files by name:
+ .data : { afile.o bfile.o cfile.o }
+
+ The example also illustrates that multiple statements can be
+ included in the contents of a section definition, since each file
+ name is a separate statement.
+
+`FILENAME( SECTION )'
+`FILENAME( SECTION, SECTION, ... )'
+`FILENAME( SECTION SECTION ... )'
+ You can name one or more sections from your input files, for
+ insertion in the current output section. If you wish to specify a
+ list of input-file sections inside the parentheses, you may
+ separate the section names by either commas or whitespace.
+
+`* (SECTION)'
+`* (SECTION, SECTION, ...)'
+`* (SECTION SECTION ...)'
+ Instead of explicitly naming particular input files in a link
+ control script, you can refer to *all* files from the `ld' command
+ line: use `*' instead of a particular file name before the
+ parenthesized input-file section list.
+
+ If you have already explicitly included some files by name, `*'
+ refers to all *remaining* files--those whose places in the output
+ file have not yet been defined.
+
+ For example, to copy sections `1' through `4' from an Oasys file
+ into the `.text' section of an `a.out' file, and sections `13' and
+ `14' into the `.data' section:
+ SECTIONS {
+ .text :{
+ *("1" "2" "3" "4")
+ }
+
+ .data :{
+ *("13" "14")
+ }
+ }
+
+ `[ SECTION ... ]' used to be accepted as an alternate way to
+ specify named sections from all unallocated input files. Because
+ some operating systems (VMS) allow brackets in file names, that
+ notation is no longer supported.
+
+`FILENAME`( COMMON )''
+`*( COMMON )'
+ Specify where in your output file to place uninitialized data with
+ this notation. `*(COMMON)' by itself refers to all uninitialized
+ data from all input files (so far as it is not yet allocated);
+ FILENAME`(COMMON)' refers to uninitialized data from a particular
+ file. Both are special cases of the general mechanisms for
+ specifying where to place input-file sections: `ld' permits you to
+ refer to uninitialized data as if it were in an input-file section
+ named `COMMON', regardless of the input file's format.
+
+ For example, the following command script arranges the output file
+into three consecutive sections, named `.text', `.data', and `.bss',
+taking the input for each from the correspondingly named sections of
+all the input files:
+ SECTIONS {
+ .text : { *(.text) }
+ .data : { *(.data) }
+ .bss : { *(.bss) *(COMMON) }
+ }
+
+ The following example reads all of the sections from file `all.o'
+and places them at the start of output section `outputa' which starts
+at location `0x10000'. All of section `.input1' from file `foo.o'
+follows immediately, in the same output section. All of section
+`.input2' from `foo.o' goes into output section `outputb', followed by
+section `.input1' from `foo1.o'. All of the remaining `.input1' and
+`.input2' sections from any files are written to output section
+`outputc'.
+
+ SECTIONS {
+ outputa 0x10000 :
+ {
+ all.o
+ foo.o (.input1)
+ }
+ outputb :
+ {
+ foo.o (.input2)
+ foo1.o (.input1)
+ }
+ outputc :
+ {
+ *(.input1)
+ *(.input2)
+ }
+ }
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Section Data Expressions, Next: Section Options, Prev: Section Placement, Up: SECTIONS
+
+Section Data Expressions
+------------------------
+
+ The foregoing statements arrange, in your output file, data
+originating from your input files. You can also place data directly in
+an output section from the link command script. Most of these
+additional statements involve expressions; *note Expressions::..
+Although these statements are shown separately here for ease of
+presentation, no such segregation is needed within a section definition
+in the `SECTIONS' command; you can intermix them freely with any of the
+statements we've just described.
+
+`CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS'
+ Create a symbol for each input file in the current section, set to
+ the address of the first byte of data written from that input
+ file. For instance, with `a.out' files it is conventional to have
+ a symbol for each input file. You can accomplish this by defining
+ the output `.text' section as follows:
+ SECTIONS {
+ .text 0x2020 :
+ {
+ CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS
+ *(.text)
+ _etext = ALIGN(0x2000);
+ }
+ ...
+ }
+
+ If `sample.ld' is a file containing this script, and `a.o', `b.o',
+ `c.o', and `d.o' are four input files with contents like the
+ following--
+ /* a.c */
+
+ afunction() { }
+ int adata=1;
+ int abss;
+
+ `ld -M -T sample.ld a.o b.o c.o d.o' would create a map like this,
+ containing symbols matching the object file names:
+ 00000000 A __DYNAMIC
+ 00004020 B _abss
+ 00004000 D _adata
+ 00002020 T _afunction
+ 00004024 B _bbss
+ 00004008 D _bdata
+ 00002038 T _bfunction
+ 00004028 B _cbss
+ 00004010 D _cdata
+ 00002050 T _cfunction
+ 0000402c B _dbss
+ 00004018 D _ddata
+ 00002068 T _dfunction
+ 00004020 D _edata
+ 00004030 B _end
+ 00004000 T _etext
+ 00002020 t a.o
+ 00002038 t b.o
+ 00002050 t c.o
+ 00002068 t d.o
+
+`SYMBOL = EXPRESSION ;'
+`SYMBOL F= EXPRESSION ;'
+ SYMBOL is any symbol name (*note Symbols::.). "F=" refers to any
+ of the operators `&= += -= *= /=' which combine arithmetic and
+ assignment.
+
+ When you assign a value to a symbol within a particular section
+ definition, the value is relative to the beginning of the section
+ (*note Assignment::.). If you write
+ SECTIONS {
+ abs = 14 ;
+ ...
+ .data : { ... rel = 14 ; ... }
+ abs2 = 14 + ADDR(.data);
+ ...
+ }
+
+ `abs' and `rel' do not have the same value; `rel' has the same
+ value as `abs2'.
+
+`BYTE(EXPRESSION)'
+`SHORT(EXPRESSION)'
+`LONG(EXPRESSION)'
+ By including one of these three statements in a section
+ definition, you can explicitly place one, two, or four bytes
+ (respectively) at the current address of that section.
+
+ Multiple-byte quantities are represented in whatever byte order is
+ appropriate for the output file format (*note BFD::.).
+
+`FILL(EXPRESSION)'
+ Specify the "fill pattern" for the current section. Any otherwise
+ unspecified regions of memory within the section (for example,
+ regions you skip over by assigning a new value to the location
+ counter `.') are filled with the two least significant bytes from
+ the EXPRESSION argument. A `FILL' statement covers memory
+ locations *after* the point it occurs in the section definition; by
+ including more than one `FILL' statement, you can have different
+ fill patterns in different parts of an output section.
+
--- /dev/null
+This is Info file ld.info, produced by Makeinfo-1.55 from the input
+file ./ld.texinfo.
+
+START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+* Ld:: The GNU linker.
+END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+
+ This file documents the GNU linker LD.
+
+ Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+
+ Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
+manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
+preserved on all copies.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
+this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
+that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms
+of a permission notice identical to this one.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
+manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
+versions.
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Section Options, Prev: Section Data Expressions, Up: SECTIONS
+
+Optional Section Attributes
+---------------------------
+
+ Here is the full syntax of a section definition, including all the
+optional portions:
+
+ SECTIONS {
+ ...
+ SECNAME START BLOCK(ALIGN) (NOLOAD) : { CONTENTS } =FILL >REGION
+ ...
+ }
+
+ SECNAME and CONTENTS are required. *Note Section Definition::, and
+*note Section Placement::. for details on CONTENTS. The remaining
+elements--START, `BLOCK(ALIGN)', `(NOLOAD)' `=FILL', and `>REGION'--are
+all optional.
+
+`START'
+ You can force the output section to be loaded at a specified
+ address by specifying START immediately following the section name.
+ sTART can be represented as any expression. The following example
+ generates section OUTPUT at location `0x40000000':
+ SECTIONS {
+ ...
+ output 0x40000000: {
+ ...
+ }
+ ...
+ }
+
+`BLOCK(ALIGN)'
+ You can include `BLOCK()' specification to advance the location
+ counter `.' prior to the beginning of the section, so that the
+ section will begin at the specified alignment. ALIGN is an
+ expression.
+
+`(NOLOAD)'
+ Use `(NOLOAD)' to prevent a section from being loaded into memory
+ each time it is accessed. For example, in the script sample
+ below, the `ROM' segment is addressed at memory location `0' and
+ does not need to be loaded into each object file:
+ SECTIONS {
+ ROM 0 (NOLOAD) : { ... }
+ ...
+ }
+
+`=FILL'
+ Including `=FILL' in a section definition specifies the initial
+ fill value for that section. You may use any expression to
+ specify FILL. Any unallocated holes in the current output section
+ when written to the output file will be filled with the two least
+ significant bytes of the value, repeated as necessary. You can
+ also change the fill value with a `FILL' statement in the CONTENTS
+ of a section definition.
+
+`>REGION'
+ Assign this section to a previously defined region of memory.
+ *Note MEMORY::.
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Entry Point, Next: Option Commands, Prev: SECTIONS, Up: Commands
+
+The Entry Point
+===============
+
+ The linker command language includes a command specifically for
+defining the first executable instruction in an output file (its "entry
+point"). Its argument is a symbol name:
+ ENTRY(SYMBOL)
+
+ Like symbol assignments, the `ENTRY' command may be placed either as
+an independent command in the command file, or among the section
+definitions within the `SECTIONS' command--whatever makes the most
+sense for your layout.
+
+ `ENTRY' is only one of several ways of choosing the entry point.
+You may indicate it in any of the following ways (shown in descending
+order of priority: methods higher in the list override methods lower
+down).
+ * the `-e' ENTRY command-line option;
+
+ * the `ENTRY(SYMBOL' command in a linker control script;
+
+ * the value of the symbol `start', if present;
+
+ * the value of the symbol `_main', if present;
+
+ * the address of the first byte of the `.text' section, if present;
+
+ * The address `0'.
+
+ For example, you can use these rules to generate an entry point with
+an assignment statement: if no symbol `start' is defined within your
+input files, you can simply define it, assigning it an appropriate
+value--
+ start = 0x2020;
+
+The example shows an absolute address, but you can use any expression.
+For example, if your input object files use some other symbol-name
+convention for the entry point, you can just assign the value of
+whatever symbol contains the start address to `start':
+ start = other_symbol ;
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Option Commands, Prev: Entry Point, Up: Commands
+
+Option Commands
+===============
+
+ The command language includes a number of other commands that you can
+use for specialized purposes. They are similar in purpose to
+command-line options.
+
+`FLOAT'
+`NOFLOAT'
+ These keywords were used in some older linkers to request a
+ particular math subroutine library. `ld' doesn't use the
+ keywords, assuming instead that any necessary subroutines are in
+ libraries specified using the general mechanisms for linking to
+ archives; but to permit the use of scripts that were written for
+ the older linkers, the keywords `FLOAT' and `NOFLOAT' are accepted
+ and ignored.
+
+`FORCE_COMMON_ALLOCATION'
+ This command has the same effect as the `-d' command-line option:
+ to make `ld' assign space to common symbols even if a relocatable
+ output file is specified (`-r').
+
+`INPUT ( FILE, FILE, ... )'
+`INPUT ( FILE FILE ... )'
+ Use this command to include binary input files in the link, without
+ including them in a particular section definition. Specify the
+ full name for each FILE, including `.a' if required.
+
+ `ld' searches for each FILE through the archive-library search
+ path, just as for files you specify on the command line. See the
+ description of `-L' in *Note Command Line Options: Options.
+
+`OUTPUT ( FILENAME )'
+ Use this command to name the link output file FILENAME. The
+ effect of `OUTPUT(FILENAME)' is identical to the effect of
+ `-o FILENAME', which overrides it. You can use this command to
+ supply a default output-file name other than `a.out'.
+
+`OUTPUT_ARCH ( BFDNAME )'
+ Specify a particular output machine architecture, with one of the
+ names used by the BFD back-end routines (*note BFD::.). This
+ command is often unnecessary; the architecture is most often set
+ implicitly by either the system BFD configuration or as a side
+ effect of the `OUTPUT_FORMAT' command.
+
+`OUTPUT_FORMAT ( BFDNAME )'
+ Specify a particular output format, with one of the names used by
+ the BFD back-end routines (*note BFD::.). The effect is identical
+ to the effect of the `-oformat' command-line option. This
+ selection will only affect the output file; the related command
+ `TARGET' affects primarily input files.
+
+`SEARCH_DIR ( PATH )'
+ Add PATH to the list of paths where `ld' looks for archive
+ libraries. `SEARCH_DIR(PATH)' has the same effect as `-LPATH' on
+ the command line.
+
+`STARTUP ( FILENAME )'
+ Ensure that FILENAME is the first input file used in the link
+ process.
+
+`TARGET ( FORMAT )'
+ Change the input-file object code format (like the command-line
+ option `-b' or its synonym `-format'). The argument FORMAT is one
+ of the strings used by BFD to name binary formats. If `TARGET' is
+ specified but `OUTPUT_FORMAT' is not, the last `TARGET' argument
+ is also used as the default format for the `ld' output file.
+ *Note BFD::.
+
+ If you don't use the `TARGET' command, `ld' uses the value of the
+ environment variable `GNUTARGET', if available, to select the
+ output file format. If that variable is also absent, `ld' uses
+ the default format configured for your machine in the BFD
+ libraries.
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Machine Dependent, Next: BFD, Prev: Commands, Up: Top
+
+Machine Dependent Features
+**************************
+
+ `ld' has additional features on some platforms; the following
+sections describe them. Machines where `ld' has no additional
+functionality are not listed.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* H8/300:: `ld' and the H8/300
+* i960:: `ld' and the Intel 960 family
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: H8/300, Next: i960, Up: Machine Dependent
+
+`ld' and the H8/300
+===================
+
+ For the H8/300, `ld' can perform these global optimizations when you
+specify the `-relax' command-line option.
+
+*relaxing address modes*
+ `ld' finds all `jsr' and `jmp' instructions whose targets are
+ within eight bits, and turns them into eight-bit program-counter
+ relative `bsr' and `bra' instructions, respectively.
+
+*synthesizing instructions*
+ `ld' finds all `mov.b' instructions which use the sixteen-bit
+ absolute address form, but refer to the top page of memory, and
+ changes them to use the eight-bit address form. (That is: the
+ linker turns `mov.b `@'AA:16' into `mov.b `@'AA:8' whenever the
+ address AA is in the top page of memory).
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: i960, Prev: H8/300, Up: Machine Dependent
+
+`ld' and the Intel 960 family
+=============================
+
+ You can use the `-AARCHITECTURE' command line option to specify one
+of the two-letter names identifying members of the 960 family; the
+option specifies the desired output target, and warns of any
+incompatible instructions in the input files. It also modifies the
+linker's search strategy for archive libraries, to support the use of
+libraries specific to each particular architecture, by including in the
+search loop names suffixed with the string identifying the architecture.
+
+ For example, if your `ld' command line included `-ACA' as well as
+`-ltry', the linker would look (in its built-in search paths, and in
+any paths you specify with `-L') for a library with the names
+
+ try
+ libtry.a
+ tryca
+ libtryca.a
+
+The first two possibilities would be considered in any event; the last
+two are due to the use of `-ACA'.
+
+ You can meaningfully use `-A' more than once on a command line, since
+the 960 architecture family allows combination of target architectures;
+each use will add another pair of name variants to search for when `-l'
+specifies a library.
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: BFD, Next: MRI, Prev: Machine Dependent, Up: Top
+
+BFD
+***
+
+ The linker accesses object and archive files using the BFD libraries.
+These libraries allow the linker to use the same routines to operate on
+object files whatever the object file format. A different object file
+format can be supported simply by creating a new BFD back end and adding
+it to the library. You can use `objdump -i' (*note objdump:
+(binutils.info)objdump.) to list all the formats available for each
+architecture under BFD. This was the list of formats, and of
+architectures supported for each format, as of the time this manual was
+prepared:
+ BFD header file version 0.18
+ a.out-i386
+ (header big endian, data big endian)
+ m68k:68020
+ a29k
+ sparc
+ i386
+ a.out-sunos-big
+ (header big endian, data big endian)
+ m68k:68020
+ a29k
+ sparc
+ i386
+ b.out.big
+ (header big endian, data little endian)
+ i960:core
+ b.out.little
+ (header little endian, data little endian)
+ i960:core
+ coff-a29k-big
+ (header big endian, data big endian)
+ a29k
+ coff-h8300
+ (header big endian, data big endian)
+ H8/300
+ coff-i386
+ (header little endian, data little endian)
+ i386
+ coff-Intel-big
+ (header big endian, data little endian)
+ i960:core
+ coff-Intel-little
+ (header little endian, data little endian)
+ i960:core
+ coff-m68k
+ (header big endian, data big endian)
+ m68k:68020
+ coff-m88kbcs
+ (header big endian, data big endian)
+ m88k:88100
+ ecoff-bigmips
+ (header big endian, data big endian)
+ mips
+ ecoff-littlemips
+ (header little endian, data little endian)
+ mips
+ elf-big
+ (header big endian, data big endian)
+ m68k:68020
+ vax
+ i960:core
+ a29k
+ sparc
+ mips
+ i386
+ m88k:88100
+ H8/300
+ rs6000:6000
+ elf-little
+ (header little endian, data little endian)
+ m68k:68020
+ vax
+ i960:core
+ a29k
+ sparc
+ mips
+ i386
+ m88k:88100
+ H8/300
+ rs6000:6000
+ ieee
+ (header big endian, data big endian)
+ m68k:68020
+ vax
+ i960:core
+ a29k
+ sparc
+ mips
+ i386
+ m88k:88100
+ H8/300
+ rs6000:6000
+ srec
+ (header big endian, data big endian)
+ m68k:68020
+ vax
+ i960:core
+ a29k
+ sparc
+ mips
+ i386
+ m88k:88100
+ H8/300
+ rs6000:6000
+
+ As with most implementations, BFD is a compromise between several
+conflicting requirements. The major factor influencing BFD design was
+efficiency: any time used converting between formats is time which
+would not have been spent had BFD not been involved. This is partly
+offset by abstraction payback; since BFD simplifies applications and
+back ends, more time and care may be spent optimizing algorithms for a
+greater speed.
+
+ One minor artifact of the BFD solution which you should bear in mind
+is the potential for information loss. There are two places where
+useful information can be lost using the BFD mechanism: during
+conversion and during output. *Note BFD information loss::.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* BFD outline:: How it works: an outline of BFD
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: BFD outline, Up: BFD
+
+How it works: an outline of BFD
+===============================
+
+ When an object file is opened, BFD subroutines automatically
+determine the format of the input object file. They then build a
+descriptor in memory with pointers to routines that will be used to
+access elements of the object file's data structures.
+
+ As different information from the the object files is required, BFD
+reads from different sections of the file and processes them. For
+example, a very common operation for the linker is processing symbol
+tables. Each BFD back end provides a routine for converting between
+the object file's representation of symbols and an internal canonical
+format. When the linker asks for the symbol table of an object file, it
+calls through a memory pointer to the routine from the relevant BFD
+back end which reads and converts the table into a canonical form. The
+linker then operates upon the canonical form. When the link is finished
+and the linker writes the output file's symbol table, another BFD back
+end routine is called to take the newly created symbol table and
+convert it into the chosen output format.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* BFD information loss:: Information Loss
+* Canonical format:: The BFD canonical object-file format
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: BFD information loss, Next: Canonical format, Up: BFD outline
+
+Information Loss
+----------------
+
+ *Information can be lost during output.* The output formats
+supported by BFD do not provide identical facilities, and information
+which can be described in one form has nowhere to go in another format.
+One example of this is alignment information in `b.out'. There is
+nowhere in an `a.out' format file to store alignment information on the
+contained data, so when a file is linked from `b.out' and an `a.out'
+image is produced, alignment information will not propagate to the
+output file. (The linker will still use the alignment information
+internally, so the link is performed correctly).
+
+ Another example is COFF section names. COFF files may contain an
+unlimited number of sections, each one with a textual section name. If
+the target of the link is a format which does not have many sections
+(e.g., `a.out') or has sections without names (e.g., the Oasys format),
+the link cannot be done simply. You can circumvent this problem by
+describing the desired input-to-output section mapping with the linker
+command language.
+
+ *Information can be lost during canonicalization.* The BFD internal
+canonical form of the external formats is not exhaustive; there are
+structures in input formats for which there is no direct representation
+internally. This means that the BFD back ends cannot maintain all
+possible data richness through the transformation between external to
+internal and back to external formats.
+
+ This limitation is only a problem when an application reads one
+format and writes another. Each BFD back end is responsible for
+maintaining as much data as possible, and the internal BFD canonical
+form has structures which are opaque to the BFD core, and exported only
+to the back ends. When a file is read in one format, the canonical form
+is generated for BFD and the application. At the same time, the back
+end saves away any information which may otherwise be lost. If the data
+is then written back in the same format, the back end routine will be
+able to use the canonical form provided by the BFD core as well as the
+information it prepared earlier. Since there is a great deal of
+commonality between back ends, there is no information lost when
+linking or copying big endian COFF to little endian COFF, or `a.out' to
+`b.out'. When a mixture of formats is linked, the information is only
+lost from the files whose format differs from the destination.
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Canonical format, Prev: BFD information loss, Up: BFD outline
+
+The BFD canonical object-file format
+------------------------------------
+
+ The greatest potential for loss of information occurs when there is
+the least overlap between the information provided by the source
+format, that stored by the canonical format, and that needed by the
+destination format. A brief description of the canonical form may help
+you understand which kinds of data you can count on preserving across
+conversions.
+
+*files*
+ Information stored on a per-file basis includes target machine
+ architecture, particular implementation format type, a demand
+ pageable bit, and a write protected bit. Information like Unix
+ magic numbers is not stored here--only the magic numbers' meaning,
+ so a `ZMAGIC' file would have both the demand pageable bit and the
+ write protected text bit set. The byte order of the target is
+ stored on a per-file basis, so that big- and little-endian object
+ files may be used with one another.
+
+*sections*
+ Each section in the input file contains the name of the section,
+ the section's original address in the object file, size and
+ alignment information, various flags, and pointers into other BFD
+ data structures.
+
+*symbols*
+ Each symbol contains a pointer to the information for the object
+ file which originally defined it, its name, its value, and various
+ flag bits. When a BFD back end reads in a symbol table, it
+ relocates all symbols to make them relative to the base of the
+ section where they were defined. Doing this ensures that each
+ symbol points to its containing section. Each symbol also has a
+ varying amount of hidden private data for the BFD back end. Since
+ the symbol points to the original file, the private data format
+ for that symbol is accessible. `ld' can operate on a collection
+ of symbols of wildly different formats without problems.
+
+ Normal global and simple local symbols are maintained on output,
+ so an output file (no matter its format) will retain symbols
+ pointing to functions and to global, static, and common variables.
+ Some symbol information is not worth retaining; in `a.out', type
+ information is stored in the symbol table as long symbol names.
+ This information would be useless to most COFF debuggers; the
+ linker has command line switches to allow users to throw it away.
+
+ There is one word of type information within the symbol, so if the
+ format supports symbol type information within symbols (for
+ example, COFF, IEEE, Oasys) and the type is simple enough to fit
+ within one word (nearly everything but aggregates), the
+ information will be preserved.
+
+*relocation level*
+ Each canonical BFD relocation record contains a pointer to the
+ symbol to relocate to, the offset of the data to relocate, the
+ section the data is in, and a pointer to a relocation type
+ descriptor. Relocation is performed by passing messages through
+ the relocation type descriptor and the symbol pointer. Therefore,
+ relocations can be performed on output data using a relocation
+ method that is only available in one of the input formats. For
+ instance, Oasys provides a byte relocation format. A relocation
+ record requesting this relocation type would point indirectly to a
+ routine to perform this, so the relocation may be performed on a
+ byte being written to a 68k COFF file, even though 68k COFF has no
+ such relocation type.
+
+*line numbers*
+ Object formats can contain, for debugging purposes, some form of
+ mapping between symbols, source line numbers, and addresses in the
+ output file. These addresses have to be relocated along with the
+ symbol information. Each symbol with an associated list of line
+ number records points to the first record of the list. The head
+ of a line number list consists of a pointer to the symbol, which
+ allows finding out the address of the function whose line number
+ is being described. The rest of the list is made up of pairs:
+ offsets into the section and line numbers. Any format which can
+ simply derive this information can pass it successfully between
+ formats (COFF, IEEE and Oasys).
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: MRI, Next: Index, Prev: BFD, Up: Top
+
+MRI Compatible Script Files
+***************************
+
+ To aid users making the transition to GNU `ld' from the MRI linker,
+`ld' can use MRI compatible linker scripts as an alternative to the
+more general-purpose linker scripting language described in *Note
+Command Language: Commands. MRI compatible linker scripts have a much
+simpler command set than the scripting language otherwise used with
+`ld'. GNU `ld' supports the most commonly used MRI linker commands;
+these commands are described here.
+
+ In general, MRI scripts aren't of much use with the `a.out' object
+file format, since it only has three sections and MRI scripts lack some
+features to make use of them.
+
+ You can specify a file containing an MRI-compatible script using the
+`-c' command-line option.
+
+ Each command in an MRI-compatible script occupies its own line; each
+command line starts with the keyword that identifies the command (though
+blank lines are also allowed for punctuation). If a line of an
+MRI-compatible script begins with an unrecognized keyword, `ld' issues
+a warning message, but continues processing the script.
+
+ Lines beginning with `*' are comments.
+
+ You can write these commands using all upper-case letters, or all
+lower case; for example, `chip' is the same as `CHIP'. The following
+list shows only the upper-case form of each command.
+
+`ABSOLUTE SECNAME'
+`ABSOLUTE SECNAME, SECNAME, ... SECNAME'
+ Normally, `ld' includes in the output file all sections from all
+ the input files. However, in an MRI-compatible script, you can
+ use the `ABSOLUTE' command to restrict the sections that will be
+ present in your output program. If the `ABSOLUTE' command is used
+ at all in a script, then only the sections named explicitly in
+ `ABSOLUTE' commands will appear in the linker output. You can
+ still use other input sections (whatever you select on the command
+ line, or using `LOAD') to resolve addresses in the output file.
+
+`ALIAS OUT-SECNAME, IN-SECNAME'
+ Use this command to place the data from input section IN-SECNAME
+ in a section called OUT-SECNAME in the linker output file.
+
+ IN-SECNAME may be an integer.
+
+`BASE EXPRESSION'
+ Use the value of EXPRESSION as the lowest address (other than
+ absolute addresses) in the output file.
+
+`CHIP EXPRESSION'
+`CHIP EXPRESSION, EXPRESSION'
+ This command does nothing; it is accepted only for compatibility.
+
+`END'
+ This command does nothing whatever; it's only accepted for
+ compatibility.
+
+`FORMAT OUTPUT-FORMAT'
+ Similar to the `OUTPUT_FORMAT' command in the more general linker
+ language, but restricted to one of these output formats:
+ 1. S-records, if OUTPUT-FORMAT is `S'
+
+ 2. IEEE, if OUTPUT-FORMAT is `IEEE'
+
+ 3. COFF (the `coff-m68k' variant in BFD), if OUTPUT-FORMAT is
+ `COFF'
+
+`LIST ANYTHING...'
+ Print (to the standard output file) a link map, as produced by the
+ `ld' command-line option `-M'.
+
+ The keyword `LIST' may be followed by anything on the same line,
+ with no change in its effect.
+
+`LOAD FILENAME'
+`LOAD FILENAME, FILENAME, ... FILENAME'
+ Include one or more object file FILENAME in the link; this has the
+ same effect as specifying FILENAME directly on the `ld' command
+ line.
+
+`NAME OUTPUT-NAME'
+ OUTPUT-NAME is the name for the program produced by `ld'; the
+ MRI-compatible command `NAME' is equivalent to the command-line
+ option `-o' or the general script language command `OUTPUT'.
+
+`ORDER SECNAME, SECNAME, ... SECNAME'
+`ORDER SECNAME SECNAME SECNAME'
+ Normally, `ld' orders the sections in its output file in the order
+ in which they first appear in the input files. In an
+ MRI-compatible script, you can override this ordering with the
+ `ORDER' command. The sections you list with `ORDER' will appear
+ first in your output file, in the order specified.
+
+`PUBLIC NAME=EXPRESSION'
+`PUBLIC NAME,EXPRESSION'
+`PUBLIC NAME EXPRESSION'
+ Supply a value (EXPRESSION) for external symbol NAME used in the
+ linker input files.
+
+`SECT SECNAME, EXPRESSION'
+`SECT SECNAME=EXPRESSION'
+`SECT SECNAME EXPRESSION'
+ You can use any of these three forms of the `SECT' command to
+ specify the start address (EXPRESSION) for section SECNAME. If
+ you have more than one `SECT' statement for the same SECNAME, only
+ the *first* sets the start address.
+
+\1f
+File: ld.info, Node: Index, Prev: MRI, Up: Top
+
+Index
+*****
+
+* Menu:
+
+* ": Symbols.
+* *( COMMON ): Section Placement.
+* *(SECTION): Section Placement.
+* -help: Options.
+* -version: Options.
+* -AARCH: Options.
+* -b FORMAT: Options.
+* -Bstatic: Options.
+* -c MRI-CMDFILE: Options.
+* -d: Options.
+* -dc: Options.
+* -defsym SYMBOL=EXP: Options.
+* -dp: Options.
+* -e ENTRY: Options.
+* -F: Options.
+* -format: Options.
+* -g: Options.
+* -G: Options.
+* -i: Options.
+* -lARCHIVE: Options.
+* -LDIR: Options.
+* -M: Options.
+* -m EMULATION: Options.
+* -Map: Options.
+* -N: Options.
+* -n: Options.
+* -noinhibit-exec: Options.
+* -o OUTPUT: Options.
+* -oformat: Options.
+* -r: Options.
+* -R FILE: Options.
+* -relax: Options.
+* -s: Options.
+* -S: Options.
+* -t: Options.
+* -T SCRIPT: Options.
+* -Tbss ORG: Options.
+* -Tdata ORG: Options.
+* -Ttext ORG: Options.
+* -u SYMBOL: Options.
+* -Ur: Options.
+* -v: Options.
+* -V: Options.
+* -warn-comon: Options.
+* -x: Options.
+* -X: Options.
+* -ySYMBOL: Options.
+* .: Location Counter.
+* 0x: Integers.
+* ;: Assignment.
+* =FILL: Section Options.
+* >REGION: Section Options.
+* ABSOLUTE (MRI): MRI.
+* ALIAS (MRI): MRI.
+* BASE (MRI): MRI.
+* CHIP (MRI): MRI.
+* END (MRI): MRI.
+* FORMAT (MRI): MRI.
+* LIST (MRI): MRI.
+* LOAD (MRI): MRI.
+* NAME (MRI): MRI.
+* ORDER (MRI): MRI.
+* PUBLIC (MRI): MRI.
+* SECT (MRI): MRI.
+* FILENAME: Section Placement.
+* FILENAME(SECTION): Section Placement.
+* SYMBOL = EXPRESSION ;: Section Data Expressions.
+* SYMBOL F= EXPRESSION ;: Section Data Expressions.
+* absolute and relocatable symbols: Assignment.
+* ABSOLUTE(EXP): Arithmetic Functions.
+* ADDR(SECTION): Arithmetic Functions.
+* ALIGN(EXP): Arithmetic Functions.
+* aligning sections: Section Options.
+* allocating memory: MEMORY.
+* architectures: Options.
+* architectures available: BFD.
+* archive files, from cmd line: Options.
+* arithmetic: Expressions.
+* arithmetic operators: Operators.
+* assignment in scripts: Assignment.
+* assignment, in section defn: Section Data Expressions.
+* back end: BFD.
+* BFD canonical format: Canonical format.
+* BFD requirements: BFD.
+* binary input files: Option Commands.
+* binary input format: Options.
+* BLOCK(ALIGN): Section Options.
+* BYTE(EXPRESSION): Section Data Expressions.
+* combining symbols, warnings on: Options.
+* command files: Commands.
+* command line: Options.
+* commands, fundamental: Scripts.
+* comments: Scripts.
+* common allocation: Option Commands.
+* common allocation: Options.
+* commons in output: Section Placement.
+* compatibility, MRI: Options.
+* constructors: Options.
+* contents of a section: Section Placement.
+* CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS: Section Data Expressions.
+* current output location: Location Counter.
+* decimal integers: Integers.
+* default input format: Environment.
+* DEFINED(SYMBOL): Arithmetic Functions.
+* deleting local symbols: Options.
+* direct output: Section Data Expressions.
+* discontinuous memory: MEMORY.
+* dot: Location Counter.
+* emulation: Options.
+* entry point, defaults: Entry Point.
+* entry point, from command line: Options.
+* ENTRY(SYMBOL): Entry Point.
+* expression evaluation order: Evaluation.
+* expression syntax: Expressions.
+* expression, absolute: Arithmetic Functions.
+* expressions in a section: Section Data Expressions.
+* filename symbols: Section Data Expressions.
+* files and sections, section defn: Section Placement.
+* files, including in output sections: Section Placement.
+* fill pattern, entire section: Section Options.
+* FILL(EXPRESSION): Section Data Expressions.
+* first input file: Option Commands.
+* first instruction: Entry Point.
+* FLOAT: Option Commands.
+* FORCE_COMMON_ALLOCATION: Option Commands.
+* format, output file: Option Commands.
+* formats available: BFD.
+* functions in expression language: Arithmetic Functions.
+* fundamental script commands: Scripts.
+* GNU linker: Overview.
+* GNUTARGET: Option Commands.
+* GNUTARGET: Environment.
+* H8/300 support: H8/300.
+* header size: Arithmetic Functions.
+* help: Options.
+* hexadecimal integers: Integers.
+* holes: Location Counter.
+* holes, filling: Section Data Expressions.
+* i960 support: i960.
+* incremental link: Options.
+* INPUT ( FILES ): Option Commands.
+* input file format: Option Commands.
+* input filename symbols: Section Data Expressions.
+* input files, displaying: Options.
+* input files, section defn: Section Placement.
+* input format: Options.
+* input format: Options.
+* input sections to output section: Section Placement.
+* integer notation: Integers.
+* integer suffixes: Integers.
+* internal object-file format: Canonical format.
+* K and M integer suffixes: Integers.
+* l =: MEMORY.
+* L, deleting symbols beginning: Options.
+* layout of output file: Scripts.
+* lazy evaluation: Evaluation.
+* len =: MEMORY.
+* LENGTH =: MEMORY.
+* link map: Options.
+* link map: Options.
+* local symbols, deleting: Options.
+* location counter: Location Counter.
+* LONG(EXPRESSION): Section Data Expressions.
+* M and K integer suffixes: Integers.
+* machine architecture, output: Option Commands.
+* machine dependencies: Machine Dependent.
+* MEMORY: MEMORY.
+* memory region attributes: MEMORY.
+* memory regions and sections: Section Options.
+* MRI compatibility: MRI.
+* names: Symbols.
+* naming memory regions: MEMORY.
+* naming output sections: Section Definition.
+* naming the output file: Options.
+* naming the output file: Option Commands.
+* negative integers: Integers.
+* NEXT(EXP): Arithmetic Functions.
+* NMAGIC: Options.
+* NOFLOAT: Option Commands.
+* NOLOAD: Section Options.
+* Non constant expression: Assignment.
+* o =: MEMORY.
+* object file management: BFD.
+* object files: Options.
+* object size: Options.
+* octal integers: Integers.
+* OMAGIC: Options.
+* opening object files: BFD outline.
+* Operators for arithmetic: Operators.
+* options: Options.
+* org =: MEMORY.
+* ORIGIN =: MEMORY.
+* OUTPUT ( FILENAME ): Option Commands.
+* output file after errors: Options.
+* output file layout: Scripts.
+* OUTPUT_ARCH ( BFDNAME ): Option Commands.
+* OUTPUT_FORMAT ( BFDNAME ): Option Commands.
+* partial link: Options.
+* path for libraries: Option Commands.
+* precedence in expressions: Operators.
+* prevent unnecessary loading: Section Options.
+* quoted symbol names: Symbols.
+* read-only text: Options.
+* read/write from cmd line: Options.
+* regions of memory: MEMORY.
+* relaxing addressing modes: Options.
+* relaxing on H8/300: H8/300.
+* relocatable and absolute symbols: Assignment.
+* relocatable output: Options.
+* requirements for BFD: BFD.
+* rounding up location counter: Arithmetic Functions.
+* scaled integers: Integers.
+* script files: Options.
+* search directory, from cmd line: Options.
+* search path, libraries: Option Commands.
+* SEARCH_DIR ( PATH ): Option Commands.
+* section address: Arithmetic Functions.
+* section address: Section Options.
+* section alignment: Section Options.
+* section definition: Section Definition.
+* section defn, full syntax: Section Options.
+* section fill pattern: Section Options.
+* section size: Arithmetic Functions.
+* section start: Section Options.
+* section, assigning to memory region: Section Options.
+* SECTIONS: SECTIONS.
+* segment origins, cmd line: Options.
+* semicolon: Assignment.
+* SHORT(EXPRESSION): Section Data Expressions.
+* SIZEOF(SECTION): Arithmetic Functions.
+* SIZEOF_HEADERS: Arithmetic Functions.
+* sizeof_headers: Arithmetic Functions.
+* standard Unix system: Options.
+* start address, section: Section Options.
+* start of execution: Entry Point.
+* STARTUP ( FILENAME ): Option Commands.
+* strip all symbols: Options.
+* strip debugger symbols: Options.
+* suffixes for integers: Integers.
+* symbol defaults: Arithmetic Functions.
+* symbol definition, scripts: Assignment.
+* symbol names: Symbols.
+* symbol tracing: Options.
+* symbol-only input: Options.
+* symbols, from command line: Options.
+* symbols, relocatable and absolute: Assignment.
+* synthesizing linker: Options.
+* synthesizing on H8/300: H8/300.
+* TARGET ( FORMAT ): Option Commands.
+* unallocated address, next: Arithmetic Functions.
+* undefined symbol: Options.
+* uninitialized data: Section Placement.
+* unspecified memory: Section Data Expressions.
+* usage: Options.
+* variables, defining: Assignment.
+* verbose: Options.
+* version: Options.
+* version: Options.
+* warnings, on combining symbols: Options.
+* what is this?: Overview.
+
+
projects / platform / upstream / binutils.git / commitdiff