3 @setfilename coreutils.info
4 @settitle @sc{gnu} Coreutils
9 @include constants.texi
11 @c Define new indices.
15 @c Put everything in one index (arbitrarily chosen to be the concept index).
25 * Coreutils: (coreutils). Core GNU (file, text, shell) utilities.
26 * Common options: (coreutils)Common options. Common options.
27 * File permissions: (coreutils)File permissions. Access modes.
28 * Date input formats: (coreutils)Date input formats.
31 @c FIXME: the following need documentation
32 @c * [: (coreutils)[ invocation. File/string tests.
33 @c * pinky: (coreutils)pinky invocation. FIXME.
34 @c * mktemp: (coreutils)mktemp invocation. FIXME.
36 @dircategory Individual utilities
38 * arch: (coreutils)arch invocation. Print machine hardware name.
39 * base64: (coreutils)base64 invocation. Base64 encode/decode data.
40 * basename: (coreutils)basename invocation. Strip directory and suffix.
41 * cat: (coreutils)cat invocation. Concatenate and write files.
42 * chcon: (coreutils)chcon invocation. Change SELinux CTX of files.
43 * chgrp: (coreutils)chgrp invocation. Change file groups.
44 * chmod: (coreutils)chmod invocation. Change file permissions.
45 * chown: (coreutils)chown invocation. Change file owners/groups.
46 * chroot: (coreutils)chroot invocation. Specify the root directory.
47 * cksum: (coreutils)cksum invocation. Print POSIX CRC checksum.
48 * comm: (coreutils)comm invocation. Compare sorted files by line.
49 * cp: (coreutils)cp invocation. Copy files.
50 * csplit: (coreutils)csplit invocation. Split by context.
51 * cut: (coreutils)cut invocation. Print selected parts of lines.
52 * date: (coreutils)date invocation. Print/set system date and time.
53 * dd: (coreutils)dd invocation. Copy and convert a file.
54 * df: (coreutils)df invocation. Report file system disk usage.
55 * dir: (coreutils)dir invocation. List directories briefly.
56 * dircolors: (coreutils)dircolors invocation. Color setup for ls.
57 * dirname: (coreutils)dirname invocation. Strip non-directory suffix.
58 * du: (coreutils)du invocation. Report on disk usage.
59 * echo: (coreutils)echo invocation. Print a line of text.
60 * env: (coreutils)env invocation. Modify the environment.
61 * expand: (coreutils)expand invocation. Convert tabs to spaces.
62 * expr: (coreutils)expr invocation. Evaluate expressions.
63 * factor: (coreutils)factor invocation. Print prime factors
64 * false: (coreutils)false invocation. Do nothing, unsuccessfully.
65 * fmt: (coreutils)fmt invocation. Reformat paragraph text.
66 * fold: (coreutils)fold invocation. Wrap long input lines.
67 * groups: (coreutils)groups invocation. Print group names a user is in.
68 * head: (coreutils)head invocation. Output the first part of files.
69 * hostid: (coreutils)hostid invocation. Print numeric host identifier.
70 * hostname: (coreutils)hostname invocation. Print or set system name.
71 * id: (coreutils)id invocation. Print user identity.
72 * install: (coreutils)install invocation. Copy and change attributes.
73 * join: (coreutils)join invocation. Join lines on a common field.
74 * kill: (coreutils)kill invocation. Send a signal to processes.
75 * link: (coreutils)link invocation. Make hard links between files.
76 * ln: (coreutils)ln invocation. Make links between files.
77 * logname: (coreutils)logname invocation. Print current login name.
78 * ls: (coreutils)ls invocation. List directory contents.
79 * md5sum: (coreutils)md5sum invocation. Print or check MD5 digests.
80 * mkdir: (coreutils)mkdir invocation. Create directories.
81 * mkfifo: (coreutils)mkfifo invocation. Create FIFOs (named pipes).
82 * mknod: (coreutils)mknod invocation. Create special files.
83 * mv: (coreutils)mv invocation. Rename files.
84 * nice: (coreutils)nice invocation. Modify niceness.
85 * nl: (coreutils)nl invocation. Number lines and write files.
86 * nohup: (coreutils)nohup invocation. Immunize to hangups.
87 * od: (coreutils)od invocation. Dump files in octal, etc.
88 * paste: (coreutils)paste invocation. Merge lines of files.
89 * pathchk: (coreutils)pathchk invocation. Check file name portability.
90 * pr: (coreutils)pr invocation. Paginate or columnate files.
91 * printenv: (coreutils)printenv invocation. Print environment variables.
92 * printf: (coreutils)printf invocation. Format and print data.
93 * ptx: (coreutils)ptx invocation. Produce permuted indexes.
94 * pwd: (coreutils)pwd invocation. Print working directory.
95 * readlink: (coreutils)readlink invocation. Print referent of a symlink.
96 * rm: (coreutils)rm invocation. Remove files.
97 * rmdir: (coreutils)rmdir invocation. Remove empty directories.
98 * runcon: (coreutils)runcon invocation. Run in specified SELinux CTX.
99 * seq: (coreutils)seq invocation. Print numeric sequences
100 * sha1sum: (coreutils)sha1sum invocation. Print or check SHA-1 digests.
101 * sha2: (coreutils)sha2 utilities. Print or check SHA-2 digests.
102 * shred: (coreutils)shred invocation. Remove files more securely.
103 * shuf: (coreutils)shuf invocation. Shuffling text files.
104 * sleep: (coreutils)sleep invocation. Delay for a specified time.
105 * sort: (coreutils)sort invocation. Sort text files.
106 * split: (coreutils)split invocation. Split into fixed-size pieces.
107 * stat: (coreutils)stat invocation. Report file(system) status.
108 * stdbuf: (coreutils)stdbuf invocation. Modify stdio buffering.
109 * stty: (coreutils)stty invocation. Print/change terminal settings.
110 * su: (coreutils)su invocation. Modify user and group ID.
111 * sum: (coreutils)sum invocation. Print traditional checksum.
112 * sync: (coreutils)sync invocation. Synchronize memory and disk.
113 * tac: (coreutils)tac invocation. Reverse files.
114 * tail: (coreutils)tail invocation. Output the last part of files.
115 * tee: (coreutils)tee invocation. Redirect to multiple files.
116 * test: (coreutils)test invocation. File/string tests.
117 * timeout: (coreutils)timeout invocation. Run with time limit.
118 * touch: (coreutils)touch invocation. Change file timestamps.
119 * tr: (coreutils)tr invocation. Translate characters.
120 * true: (coreutils)true invocation. Do nothing, successfully.
121 * truncate: (coreutils)truncate invocation. Shrink/extend size of a file.
122 * tsort: (coreutils)tsort invocation. Topological sort.
123 * tty: (coreutils)tty invocation. Print terminal name.
124 * uname: (coreutils)uname invocation. Print system information.
125 * unexpand: (coreutils)unexpand invocation. Convert spaces to tabs.
126 * uniq: (coreutils)uniq invocation. Uniquify files.
127 * unlink: (coreutils)unlink invocation. Removal via unlink(2).
128 * uptime: (coreutils)uptime invocation. Print uptime and load.
129 * users: (coreutils)users invocation. Print current user names.
130 * vdir: (coreutils)vdir invocation. List directories verbosely.
131 * wc: (coreutils)wc invocation. Line, word, and byte counts.
132 * who: (coreutils)who invocation. Print who is logged in.
133 * whoami: (coreutils)whoami invocation. Print effective user ID.
134 * yes: (coreutils)yes invocation. Print a string indefinitely.
138 This manual documents version @value{VERSION} of the @sc{gnu} core
139 utilities, including the standard programs for text and file manipulation.
141 Copyright @copyright{} 1994-1996, 2000-2009 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
144 Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
145 under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or
146 any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no
147 Invariant Sections, with no Front-Cover Texts, and with no Back-Cover
148 Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU
149 Free Documentation License''.
154 @title @sc{gnu} @code{Coreutils}
155 @subtitle Core GNU utilities
156 @subtitle for version @value{VERSION}, @value{UPDATED}
157 @author David MacKenzie et al.
160 @vskip 0pt plus 1filll
173 @cindex core utilities
174 @cindex text utilities
175 @cindex shell utilities
176 @cindex file utilities
179 * Introduction:: Caveats, overview, and authors.
180 * Common options:: Common options.
181 * Output of entire files:: cat tac nl od
182 * Formatting file contents:: fmt pr fold
183 * Output of parts of files:: head tail split csplit
184 * Summarizing files:: wc sum cksum md5sum sha1sum sha2
185 * Operating on sorted files:: sort shuf uniq comm ptx tsort
186 * Operating on fields within a line:: cut paste join
187 * Operating on characters:: tr expand unexpand
188 * Directory listing:: ls dir vdir dircolors
189 * Basic operations:: cp dd install mv rm shred
190 * Special file types:: ln mkdir rmdir mkfifo mknod
191 * Changing file attributes:: chgrp chmod chown touch
192 * Disk usage:: df du stat sync truncate
193 * Printing text:: echo printf yes
194 * Conditions:: false true test expr
196 * File name manipulation:: dirname basename pathchk
197 * Working context:: pwd stty printenv tty
198 * User information:: id logname whoami groups users who
199 * System context:: date uname hostname hostid uptime
200 * SELinux context:: chcon runcon
201 * Modified command invocation:: chroot env nice nohup stdbuf su timeout
202 * Process control:: kill
204 * Numeric operations:: factor seq
205 * File permissions:: Access modes.
206 * Date input formats:: Specifying date strings.
207 * Opening the software toolbox:: The software tools philosophy.
208 * GNU Free Documentation License:: Copying and sharing this manual.
209 * Concept index:: General index.
212 --- The Detailed Node Listing ---
216 * Exit status:: Indicating program success or failure.
217 * Backup options:: Backup options
218 * Block size:: Block size
219 * Signal specifications:: Specifying signals
220 * Disambiguating names and IDs:: chgrp and chown owner and group syntax
221 * Random sources:: Sources of random data
222 * Target directory:: Target directory
223 * Trailing slashes:: Trailing slashes
224 * Traversing symlinks:: Traversing symlinks to directories
225 * Treating / specially:: Treating / specially
226 * Standards conformance:: Standards conformance
228 Output of entire files
230 * cat invocation:: Concatenate and write files.
231 * tac invocation:: Concatenate and write files in reverse.
232 * nl invocation:: Number lines and write files.
233 * od invocation:: Write files in octal or other formats.
234 * base64 invocation:: Transform data into printable data.
236 Formatting file contents
238 * fmt invocation:: Reformat paragraph text.
239 * pr invocation:: Paginate or columnate files for printing.
240 * fold invocation:: Wrap input lines to fit in specified width.
242 Output of parts of files
244 * head invocation:: Output the first part of files.
245 * tail invocation:: Output the last part of files.
246 * split invocation:: Split a file into fixed-size pieces.
247 * csplit invocation:: Split a file into context-determined pieces.
251 * wc invocation:: Print newline, word, and byte counts.
252 * sum invocation:: Print checksum and block counts.
253 * cksum invocation:: Print CRC checksum and byte counts.
254 * md5sum invocation:: Print or check MD5 digests.
255 * sha1sum invocation:: Print or check SHA-1 digests.
256 * sha2 utilities:: Print or check SHA-2 digests.
258 Operating on sorted files
260 * sort invocation:: Sort text files.
261 * shuf invocation:: Shuffle text files.
262 * uniq invocation:: Uniquify files.
263 * comm invocation:: Compare two sorted files line by line.
264 * ptx invocation:: Produce a permuted index of file contents.
265 * tsort invocation:: Topological sort.
267 @command{ptx}: Produce permuted indexes
269 * General options in ptx:: Options which affect general program behavior.
270 * Charset selection in ptx:: Underlying character set considerations.
271 * Input processing in ptx:: Input fields, contexts, and keyword selection.
272 * Output formatting in ptx:: Types of output format, and sizing the fields.
273 * Compatibility in ptx:: The @acronym{GNU} extensions to @command{ptx}
275 Operating on fields within a line
277 * cut invocation:: Print selected parts of lines.
278 * paste invocation:: Merge lines of files.
279 * join invocation:: Join lines on a common field.
281 Operating on characters
283 * tr invocation:: Translate, squeeze, and/or delete characters.
284 * expand invocation:: Convert tabs to spaces.
285 * unexpand invocation:: Convert spaces to tabs.
287 @command{tr}: Translate, squeeze, and/or delete characters
289 * Character sets:: Specifying sets of characters.
290 * Translating:: Changing one set of characters to another.
291 * Squeezing:: Squeezing repeats and deleting.
295 * ls invocation:: List directory contents
296 * dir invocation:: Briefly list directory contents
297 * vdir invocation:: Verbosely list directory contents
298 * dircolors invocation:: Color setup for @command{ls}
300 @command{ls}: List directory contents
302 * Which files are listed:: Which files are listed
303 * What information is listed:: What information is listed
304 * Sorting the output:: Sorting the output
305 * More details about version sort:: More details about version sort
306 * General output formatting:: General output formatting
307 * Formatting the file names:: Formatting the file names
311 * cp invocation:: Copy files and directories
312 * dd invocation:: Convert and copy a file
313 * install invocation:: Copy files and set attributes
314 * mv invocation:: Move (rename) files
315 * rm invocation:: Remove files or directories
316 * shred invocation:: Remove files more securely
320 * link invocation:: Make a hard link via the link syscall
321 * ln invocation:: Make links between files
322 * mkdir invocation:: Make directories
323 * mkfifo invocation:: Make FIFOs (named pipes)
324 * mknod invocation:: Make block or character special files
325 * readlink invocation:: Print value of a symlink or canonical file name
326 * rmdir invocation:: Remove empty directories
327 * unlink invocation:: Remove files via unlink syscall
329 Changing file attributes
331 * chown invocation:: Change file owner and group
332 * chgrp invocation:: Change group ownership
333 * chmod invocation:: Change access permissions
334 * touch invocation:: Change file timestamps
338 * df invocation:: Report file system disk space usage
339 * du invocation:: Estimate file space usage
340 * stat invocation:: Report file or file system status
341 * sync invocation:: Synchronize data on disk with memory
342 * truncate invocation:: Shrink or extend the size of a file
346 * echo invocation:: Print a line of text
347 * printf invocation:: Format and print data
348 * yes invocation:: Print a string until interrupted
352 * false invocation:: Do nothing, unsuccessfully
353 * true invocation:: Do nothing, successfully
354 * test invocation:: Check file types and compare values
355 * expr invocation:: Evaluate expressions
357 @command{test}: Check file types and compare values
359 * File type tests:: File type tests
360 * Access permission tests:: Access permission tests
361 * File characteristic tests:: File characteristic tests
362 * String tests:: String tests
363 * Numeric tests:: Numeric tests
365 @command{expr}: Evaluate expression
367 * String expressions:: + : match substr index length
368 * Numeric expressions:: + - * / %
369 * Relations for expr:: | & < <= = == != >= >
370 * Examples of expr:: Examples of using @command{expr}
374 * tee invocation:: Redirect output to multiple files or processes
376 File name manipulation
378 * basename invocation:: Strip directory and suffix from a file name
379 * dirname invocation:: Strip non-directory suffix from a file name
380 * pathchk invocation:: Check file name validity and portability
384 * pwd invocation:: Print working directory
385 * stty invocation:: Print or change terminal characteristics
386 * printenv invocation:: Print all or some environment variables
387 * tty invocation:: Print file name of terminal on standard input
389 @command{stty}: Print or change terminal characteristics
391 * Control:: Control settings
392 * Input:: Input settings
393 * Output:: Output settings
394 * Local:: Local settings
395 * Combination:: Combination settings
396 * Characters:: Special characters
397 * Special:: Special settings
401 * id invocation:: Print user identity
402 * logname invocation:: Print current login name
403 * whoami invocation:: Print effective user ID
404 * groups invocation:: Print group names a user is in
405 * users invocation:: Print login names of users currently logged in
406 * who invocation:: Print who is currently logged in
410 * arch invocation:: Print machine hardware name
411 * date invocation:: Print or set system date and time
412 * uname invocation:: Print system information
413 * hostname invocation:: Print or set system name
414 * hostid invocation:: Print numeric host identifier
415 * uptime invocation:: Print system uptime and load
417 @command{date}: Print or set system date and time
419 * Time conversion specifiers:: %[HIklMNpPrRsSTXzZ]
420 * Date conversion specifiers:: %[aAbBcCdDeFgGhjmuUVwWxyY]
421 * Literal conversion specifiers:: %[%nt]
422 * Padding and other flags:: Pad with zeros, spaces, etc.
423 * Setting the time:: Changing the system clock.
424 * Options for date:: Instead of the current time.
425 * Date input formats:: Specifying date strings.
426 * Examples of date:: Examples.
430 * chcon invocation:: Change SELinux context of file
431 * runcon invocation:: Run a command in specified SELinux context
433 Modified command invocation
435 * chroot invocation:: Run a command with a different root directory
436 * env invocation:: Run a command in a modified environment
437 * nice invocation:: Run a command with modified niceness
438 * nohup invocation:: Run a command immune to hangups
439 * stdbuf invocation:: Run a command with modified I/O buffering
440 * su invocation:: Run a command with substitute user and group ID
441 * timeout invocation:: Run a command with a time limit
445 * kill invocation:: Sending a signal to processes.
449 * sleep invocation:: Delay for a specified time
453 * factor invocation:: Print prime factors
454 * seq invocation:: Print numeric sequences
458 * Mode Structure:: Structure of file mode bits.
459 * Symbolic Modes:: Mnemonic representation of file mode bits.
460 * Numeric Modes:: File mode bits as octal numbers.
461 * Directory Setuid and Setgid:: Set-user-ID and set-group-ID on directories.
465 * General date syntax:: Common rules.
466 * Calendar date items:: 19 Dec 1994.
467 * Time of day items:: 9:20pm.
468 * Time zone items:: @sc{est}, @sc{pdt}, @sc{gmt}.
469 * Day of week items:: Monday and others.
470 * Relative items in date strings:: next tuesday, 2 years ago.
471 * Pure numbers in date strings:: 19931219, 1440.
472 * Seconds since the Epoch:: @@1078100502.
473 * Specifying time zone rules:: TZ="America/New_York", TZ="UTC0".
474 * Authors of get_date:: Bellovin, Eggert, Salz, Berets, et al.
476 Opening the software toolbox
478 * Toolbox introduction:: Toolbox introduction
479 * I/O redirection:: I/O redirection
480 * The who command:: The @command{who} command
481 * The cut command:: The @command{cut} command
482 * The sort command:: The @command{sort} command
483 * The uniq command:: The @command{uniq} command
484 * Putting the tools together:: Putting the tools together
488 * GNU Free Documentation License:: Copying and sharing this manual.
495 @chapter Introduction
497 This manual is a work in progress: many sections make no attempt to explain
498 basic concepts in a way suitable for novices. Thus, if you are interested,
499 please get involved in improving this manual. The entire @sc{gnu} community
502 @cindex @acronym{POSIX}
503 The @sc{gnu} utilities documented here are mostly compatible with the
504 @acronym{POSIX} standard.
505 @cindex bugs, reporting
506 Please report bugs to @email{bug-coreutils@@gnu.org}. Remember
507 to include the version number, machine architecture, input files, and
508 any other information needed to reproduce the bug: your input, what you
509 expected, what you got, and why it is wrong. Diffs are welcome, but
510 please include a description of the problem as well, since this is
511 sometimes difficult to infer. @xref{Bugs, , , gcc, Using and Porting GNU CC}.
517 @cindex MacKenzie, D.
520 This manual was originally derived from the Unix man pages in the
521 distributions, which were written by David MacKenzie and updated by Jim
522 Meyering. What you are reading now is the authoritative documentation
523 for these utilities; the man pages are no longer being maintained. The
524 original @command{fmt} man page was written by Ross Paterson. Fran@,{c}ois
525 Pinard did the initial conversion to Texinfo format. Karl Berry did the
526 indexing, some reorganization, and editing of the results. Brian
527 Youmans of the Free Software Foundation office staff combined the
528 manuals for textutils, fileutils, and sh-utils to produce the present
529 omnibus manual. Richard Stallman contributed his usual invaluable
530 insights to the overall process.
533 @chapter Common options
537 @itemx @w{@kbd{--backup}[=@var{method}]}
540 @vindex VERSION_CONTROL
541 @cindex backups, making
542 @xref{Backup options}.
543 Make a backup of each file that would otherwise be overwritten or removed.
546 @macro optBackupSuffix
547 @item -S @var{suffix}
548 @itemx --suffix=@var{suffix}
551 Append @var{suffix} to each backup file made with @option{-b}.
552 @xref{Backup options}.
555 @macro optTargetDirectory
556 @item -t @var{directory}
557 @itemx @w{@kbd{--target-directory}=@var{directory}}
559 @opindex --target-directory
560 @cindex target directory
561 @cindex destination directory
562 Specify the destination @var{directory}.
563 @xref{Target directory}.
566 @macro optNoTargetDirectory
568 @itemx --no-target-directory
570 @opindex --no-target-directory
571 @cindex target directory
572 @cindex destination directory
573 Do not treat the last operand specially when it is a directory or a
574 symbolic link to a directory. @xref{Target directory}.
581 Append an SI-style abbreviation to each size, such as @samp{M} for
582 megabytes. Powers of 1000 are used, not 1024; @samp{M} stands for
583 1,000,000 bytes. This option is equivalent to
584 @option{--block-size=si}. Use the @option{-h} or
585 @option{--human-readable} option if
586 you prefer powers of 1024.
589 @macro optHumanReadable
591 @itemx --human-readable
593 @opindex --human-readable
594 @cindex human-readable output
595 Append a size letter to each size, such as @samp{M} for mebibytes.
596 Powers of 1024 are used, not 1000; @samp{M} stands for 1,048,576 bytes.
597 This option is equivalent to @option{--block-size=human-readable}.
598 Use the @option{--si} option if you prefer powers of 1000.
601 @macro optStripTrailingSlashes
602 @itemx @w{@kbd{--strip-trailing-slashes}}
603 @opindex --strip-trailing-slashes
604 @cindex stripping trailing slashes
605 Remove any trailing slashes from each @var{source} argument.
606 @xref{Trailing slashes}.
609 @macro mayConflictWithShellBuiltIn{cmd}
610 @cindex conflicts with shell built-ins
611 @cindex built-in shell commands, conflicts with
612 Due to shell aliases and built-in @command{\cmd\} command, using an
613 unadorned @command{\cmd\} interactively or in a script may get you
614 different functionality than that described here. Invoke it via
615 @command{env} (i.e., @code{env \cmd\ @dots{}}) to avoid interference
620 @macro multiplierSuffixes{varName}
622 Appending @samp{b} multiplies @var{\varName\} by 512,
623 @samp{kB} by 1000, @samp{K} by 1024,
624 @samp{MB} by 1000*1000, @samp{M} by 1024*1024,
625 @samp{GB} by 1000*1000*1000, @samp{G} by 1024*1024*1024,
626 and so on for @samp{T}, @samp{P}, @samp{E}, @samp{Z}, and @samp{Y}.
628 @var{\varName\} is a number which may have one of the following
629 multiplicative suffixes:
631 @samp{b} => 512 ("blocks")
632 @samp{KB} => 1000 (KiloBytes)
633 @samp{K} => 1024 (KibiBytes)
634 @samp{MB} => 1000*1000 (MegaBytes)
635 @samp{M} => 1024*1024 (MebiBytes)
636 @samp{GB} => 1000*1000*1000 (GigaBytes)
637 @samp{G} => 1024*1024*1024 (GibiBytes)
639 and so on for @samp{T}, @samp{P}, @samp{E}, @samp{Z}, and @samp{Y}.
642 @c FIXME: same as above, but no ``blocks'' line.
643 @macro multiplierSuffixesNoBlocks{varName}
644 @var{\varName\} is a number which may have one of the following
645 multiplicative suffixes:
647 @samp{KB} => 1000 (KiloBytes)
648 @samp{K} => 1024 (KibiBytes)
649 @samp{MB} => 1000*1000 (MegaBytes)
650 @samp{M} => 1024*1024 (MebiBytes)
651 @samp{GB} => 1000*1000*1000 (GigaBytes)
652 @samp{G} => 1024*1024*1024 (GibiBytes)
654 and so on for @samp{T}, @samp{P}, @samp{E}, @samp{Z}, and @samp{Y}.
657 @cindex common options
659 Certain options are available in all of these programs. Rather than
660 writing identical descriptions for each of the programs, they are
661 described here. (In fact, every @sc{gnu} program accepts (or should accept)
664 @vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
665 Normally options and operands can appear in any order, and programs act
666 as if all the options appear before any operands. For example,
667 @samp{sort -r passwd -t :} acts like @samp{sort -r -t : passwd}, since
668 @samp{:} is an option-argument of @option{-t}. However, if the
669 @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} environment variable is set, options must appear
670 before operands, unless otherwise specified for a particular command.
672 A few programs can usefully have trailing operands with leading
673 @samp{-}. With such a program, options must precede operands even if
674 @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} is not set, and this fact is noted in the
675 program description. For example, the @command{env} command's options
676 must appear before its operands, since in some cases the operands
677 specify a command that itself contains options.
679 Most programs that accept long options recognize unambiguous
680 abbreviations of those options. For example, @samp{rmdir
681 --ignore-fail-on-non-empty} can be invoked as @samp{rmdir
682 --ignore-fail} or even @samp{rmdir --i}. Ambiguous options, such as
683 @samp{ls --h}, are identified as such.
685 Some of these programs recognize the @option{--help} and @option{--version}
686 options only when one of them is the sole command line argument. For
687 these programs, abbreviations of the long options are not always recognized.
694 Print a usage message listing all available options, then exit successfully.
698 @cindex version number, finding
699 Print the version number, then exit successfully.
703 @cindex option delimiter
704 Delimit the option list. Later arguments, if any, are treated as
705 operands even if they begin with @samp{-}. For example, @samp{sort --
706 -r} reads from the file named @file{-r}.
710 @cindex standard input
711 @cindex standard output
712 A single @samp{-} operand is not really an option, though it looks like one. It
713 stands for standard input, or for standard output if that is clear from
714 the context. For example, @samp{sort -} reads from standard input,
715 and is equivalent to plain @samp{sort}, and @samp{tee -} writes an
716 extra copy of its input to standard output. Unless otherwise
717 specified, @samp{-} can appear as any operand that requires a file
721 * Exit status:: Indicating program success or failure.
722 * Backup options:: -b -S, in some programs.
723 * Block size:: BLOCK_SIZE and --block-size, in some programs.
724 * Signal specifications:: Specifying signals using the --signal option.
725 * Disambiguating names and IDs:: chgrp and chown owner and group syntax
726 * Random sources:: --random-source, in some programs.
727 * Target directory:: Specifying a target directory, in some programs.
728 * Trailing slashes:: --strip-trailing-slashes, in some programs.
729 * Traversing symlinks:: -H, -L, or -P, in some programs.
730 * Treating / specially:: --preserve-root and --no-preserve-root.
731 * Special built-in utilities:: @command{break}, @command{:}, @command{eval}, @dots{}
732 * Standards conformance:: Conformance to the @acronym{POSIX} standard.
740 An exit status of zero indicates success,
741 and a nonzero value indicates failure.
744 Nearly every command invocation yields an integral @dfn{exit status}
745 that can be used to change how other commands work.
746 For the vast majority of commands, an exit status of zero indicates
747 success. Failure is indicated by a nonzero value---typically
748 @samp{1}, though it may differ on unusual platforms as @acronym{POSIX}
749 requires only that it be nonzero.
751 However, some of the programs documented here do produce
752 other exit status values and a few associate different
753 meanings with the values @samp{0} and @samp{1}.
754 Here are some of the exceptions:
755 @command{chroot}, @command{env}, @command{expr},
756 @command{nice}, @command{nohup}, @command{printenv}, @command{sort},
757 @command{su}, @command{test}, @command{timeout}, @command{tty}.
761 @section Backup options
763 @cindex backup options
765 Some @sc{gnu} programs (at least @command{cp}, @command{install},
766 @command{ln}, and @command{mv}) optionally make backups of files
767 before writing new versions.
768 These options control the details of these backups. The options are also
769 briefly mentioned in the descriptions of the particular programs.
774 @itemx @w{@kbd{--backup}[=@var{method}]}
777 @vindex VERSION_CONTROL
778 @cindex backups, making
779 Make a backup of each file that would otherwise be overwritten or removed.
780 Without this option, the original versions are destroyed.
781 Use @var{method} to determine the type of backups to make.
782 When this option is used but @var{method} is not specified,
783 then the value of the @env{VERSION_CONTROL}
784 environment variable is used. And if @env{VERSION_CONTROL} is not set,
785 the default backup type is @samp{existing}.
787 Note that the short form of this option, @option{-b} does not accept any
788 argument. Using @option{-b} is equivalent to using @option{--backup=existing}.
790 @vindex version-control @r{Emacs variable}
791 This option corresponds to the Emacs variable @samp{version-control};
792 the values for @var{method} are the same as those used in Emacs.
793 This option also accepts more descriptive names.
794 The valid @var{method}s are (unique abbreviations are accepted):
799 @opindex none @r{backup method}
804 @opindex numbered @r{backup method}
805 Always make numbered backups.
809 @opindex existing @r{backup method}
810 Make numbered backups of files that already have them, simple backups
815 @opindex simple @r{backup method}
816 Always make simple backups. Please note @samp{never} is not to be
817 confused with @samp{none}.
821 @item -S @var{suffix}
822 @itemx --suffix=@var{suffix}
825 @cindex backup suffix
826 @vindex SIMPLE_BACKUP_SUFFIX
827 Append @var{suffix} to each backup file made with @option{-b}. If this
828 option is not specified, the value of the @env{SIMPLE_BACKUP_SUFFIX}
829 environment variable is used. And if @env{SIMPLE_BACKUP_SUFFIX} is not
830 set, the default is @samp{~}, just as in Emacs.
839 Some @sc{gnu} programs (at least @command{df}, @command{du}, and
840 @command{ls}) display sizes in ``blocks''. You can adjust the block size
841 and method of display to make sizes easier to read. The block size
842 used for display is independent of any file system block size.
843 Fractional block counts are rounded up to the nearest integer.
845 @opindex --block-size=@var{size}
848 @vindex DF_BLOCK_SIZE
849 @vindex DU_BLOCK_SIZE
850 @vindex LS_BLOCK_SIZE
851 @vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT@r{, and block size}
853 The default block size is chosen by examining the following environment
854 variables in turn; the first one that is set determines the block size.
859 This specifies the default block size for the @command{df} command.
860 Similarly, @env{DU_BLOCK_SIZE} specifies the default for @command{du} and
861 @env{LS_BLOCK_SIZE} for @command{ls}.
864 This specifies the default block size for all three commands, if the
865 above command-specific environment variables are not set.
868 This specifies the default block size for all values that are normally
869 printed as blocks, if neither @env{BLOCK_SIZE} nor the above
870 command-specific environment variables are set. Unlike the other
871 environment variables, @env{BLOCKSIZE} does not affect values that are
872 normally printed as byte counts, e.g., the file sizes contained in
875 @item POSIXLY_CORRECT
876 If neither @env{@var{command}_BLOCK_SIZE}, nor @env{BLOCK_SIZE}, nor
877 @env{BLOCKSIZE} is set, but this variable is set, the block size
882 If none of the above environment variables are set, the block size
883 currently defaults to 1024 bytes in most contexts, but this number may
884 change in the future. For @command{ls} file sizes, the block size
887 @cindex human-readable output
890 A block size specification can be a positive integer specifying the number
891 of bytes per block, or it can be @code{human-readable} or @code{si} to
892 select a human-readable format. Integers may be followed by suffixes
893 that are upward compatible with the
894 @uref{http://www.bipm.fr/enus/3_SI/si-prefixes.html, SI prefixes}
895 for decimal multiples and with the
896 @uref{http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/binary.html, IEC 60027-2
897 prefixes for binary multiples}.
899 With human-readable formats, output sizes are followed by a size letter
900 such as @samp{M} for megabytes. @code{BLOCK_SIZE=human-readable} uses
901 powers of 1024; @samp{M} stands for 1,048,576 bytes.
902 @code{BLOCK_SIZE=si} is similar, but uses powers of 1000 and appends
903 @samp{B}; @samp{MB} stands for 1,000,000 bytes.
906 A block size specification preceded by @samp{'} causes output sizes to
907 be displayed with thousands separators. The @env{LC_NUMERIC} locale
908 specifies the thousands separator and grouping. For example, in an
909 American English locale, @samp{--block-size="'1kB"} would cause a size
910 of 1234000 bytes to be displayed as @samp{1,234}. In the default C
911 locale, there is no thousands separator so a leading @samp{'} has no
914 An integer block size can be followed by a suffix to specify a
915 multiple of that size. A bare size letter,
916 or one followed by @samp{iB}, specifies
917 a multiple using powers of 1024. A size letter followed by @samp{B}
918 specifies powers of 1000 instead. For example, @samp{1M} and
919 @samp{1MiB} are equivalent to @samp{1048576}, whereas @samp{1MB} is
920 equivalent to @samp{1000000}.
922 A plain suffix without a preceding integer acts as if @samp{1} were
923 prepended, except that it causes a size indication to be appended to
924 the output. For example, @samp{--block-size="kB"} displays 3000 as
927 The following suffixes are defined. Large sizes like @code{1Y}
928 may be rejected by your computer due to limitations of its arithmetic.
932 @cindex kilobyte, definition of
933 kilobyte: @math{10^3 = 1000}.
937 @cindex kibibyte, definition of
938 kibibyte: @math{2^{10} = 1024}. @samp{K} is special: the SI prefix is
939 @samp{k} and the IEC 60027-2 prefix is @samp{Ki}, but tradition and
940 @acronym{POSIX} use @samp{k} to mean @samp{KiB}.
942 @cindex megabyte, definition of
943 megabyte: @math{10^6 = 1,000,000}.
946 @cindex mebibyte, definition of
947 mebibyte: @math{2^{20} = 1,048,576}.
949 @cindex gigabyte, definition of
950 gigabyte: @math{10^9 = 1,000,000,000}.
953 @cindex gibibyte, definition of
954 gibibyte: @math{2^{30} = 1,073,741,824}.
956 @cindex terabyte, definition of
957 terabyte: @math{10^{12} = 1,000,000,000,000}.
960 @cindex tebibyte, definition of
961 tebibyte: @math{2^{40} = 1,099,511,627,776}.
963 @cindex petabyte, definition of
964 petabyte: @math{10^{15} = 1,000,000,000,000,000}.
967 @cindex pebibyte, definition of
968 pebibyte: @math{2^{50} = 1,125,899,906,842,624}.
970 @cindex exabyte, definition of
971 exabyte: @math{10^{18} = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000}.
974 @cindex exbibyte, definition of
975 exbibyte: @math{2^{60} = 1,152,921,504,606,846,976}.
977 @cindex zettabyte, definition of
978 zettabyte: @math{10^{21} = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000}
981 @math{2^{70} = 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424}.
982 (@samp{Zi} is a @acronym{GNU} extension to IEC 60027-2.)
984 @cindex yottabyte, definition of
985 yottabyte: @math{10^{24} = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000}.
988 @math{2^{80} = 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176}.
989 (@samp{Yi} is a @acronym{GNU} extension to IEC 60027-2.)
994 @opindex --block-size
995 @opindex --human-readable
998 Block size defaults can be overridden by an explicit
999 @option{--block-size=@var{size}} option. The @option{-k}
1000 option is equivalent to @option{--block-size=1K}, which
1001 is the default unless the @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} environment variable is
1002 set. The @option{-h} or @option{--human-readable} option is equivalent to
1003 @option{--block-size=human-readable}. The @option{--si} option is
1004 equivalent to @option{--block-size=si}.
1006 @node Signal specifications
1007 @section Signal specifications
1008 @cindex signals, specifying
1010 A @var{signal} may be a signal name like @samp{HUP}, or a signal
1011 number like @samp{1}, or an exit status of a process terminated by the
1012 signal. A signal name can be given in canonical form or prefixed by
1013 @samp{SIG}. The case of the letters is ignored. The following signal names
1014 and numbers are supported on all @acronym{POSIX} compliant systems:
1020 2. Terminal interrupt.
1026 9. Kill (cannot be caught or ignored).
1034 Other supported signal names have system-dependent corresponding
1035 numbers. All systems conforming to @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 also
1036 support the following signals:
1040 Access to an undefined portion of a memory object.
1042 Child process terminated, stopped, or continued.
1044 Continue executing, if stopped.
1046 Erroneous arithmetic operation.
1048 Illegal Instruction.
1050 Write on a pipe with no one to read it.
1052 Invalid memory reference.
1054 Stop executing (cannot be caught or ignored).
1058 Background process attempting read.
1060 Background process attempting write.
1062 High bandwidth data is available at a socket.
1064 User-defined signal 1.
1066 User-defined signal 2.
1070 @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 systems that support the @acronym{XSI} extension
1071 also support the following signals:
1077 Profiling timer expired.
1081 Trace/breakpoint trap.
1083 Virtual timer expired.
1085 CPU time limit exceeded.
1087 File size limit exceeded.
1091 @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 systems that support the @acronym{XRT} extension
1092 also support at least eight real-time signals called @samp{RTMIN},
1093 @samp{RTMIN+1}, @dots{}, @samp{RTMAX-1}, @samp{RTMAX}.
1095 @node Disambiguating names and IDs
1096 @section chown and chgrp: Disambiguating user names and IDs
1097 @cindex user names, disambiguating
1098 @cindex user IDs, disambiguating
1099 @cindex group names, disambiguating
1100 @cindex group IDs, disambiguating
1101 @cindex disambiguating group names and IDs
1103 Since the @var{owner} and @var{group} arguments to @command{chown} and
1104 @command{chgrp} may be specified as names or numeric IDs, there is an
1106 What if a user or group @emph{name} is a string of digits?
1107 @footnote{Using a number as a user name is common in some environments.}
1108 Should the command interpret it as a user name or as an ID?
1109 @acronym{POSIX} requires that @command{chown} and @command{chgrp}
1110 first attempt to resolve the specified string as a name, and
1111 only once that fails, then try to interpret it as an ID.
1112 This is troublesome when you want to specify a numeric ID, say 42,
1113 and it must work even in a pathological situation where
1114 @samp{42} is a user name that maps to some other user ID, say 1000.
1115 Simply invoking @code{chown 42 F}, will set @file{F}s owner ID to
1116 1000---not what you intended.
1118 GNU @command{chown} and @command{chgrp} provide a way to work around this,
1119 that at the same time may result in a significant performance improvement
1120 by eliminating a database look-up.
1121 Simply precede each numeric user ID and/or group ID with a @samp{+},
1122 in order to force its interpretation as an integer:
1126 chgrp +$numeric_group_id another-file
1130 GNU @command{chown} and @command{chgrp}
1131 skip the name look-up process for each @samp{+}-prefixed string,
1132 because a string containing @samp{+} is never a valid user or group name.
1133 This syntax is accepted on most common Unix systems, but not on Solaris 10.
1135 @node Random sources
1136 @section Sources of random data
1138 @cindex random sources
1140 The @command{shuf}, @command{shred}, and @command{sort} commands
1141 sometimes need random data to do their work. For example, @samp{sort
1142 -R} must choose a hash function at random, and it needs random data to
1143 make this selection.
1145 By default these commands use an internal pseudorandom generator
1146 initialized by a small amount of entropy, but can be directed to use
1147 an external source with the @option{--random-source=@var{file}} option.
1148 An error is reported if @var{file} does not contain enough bytes.
1150 For example, the device file @file{/dev/urandom} could be used as the
1151 source of random data. Typically, this device gathers environmental
1152 noise from device drivers and other sources into an entropy pool, and
1153 uses the pool to generate random bits. If the pool is short of data,
1154 the device reuses the internal pool to produce more bits, using a
1155 cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator. But be aware
1156 that this device is not designed for bulk random data generation
1157 and is relatively slow.
1159 @file{/dev/urandom} suffices for most practical uses, but applications
1160 requiring high-value or long-term protection of private data may
1161 require an alternate data source like @file{/dev/random} or
1162 @file{/dev/arandom}. The set of available sources depends on your
1165 To reproduce the results of an earlier invocation of a command, you
1166 can save some random data into a file and then use that file as the
1167 random source in earlier and later invocations of the command.
1169 @node Target directory
1170 @section Target directory
1172 @cindex target directory
1174 The @command{cp}, @command{install}, @command{ln}, and @command{mv}
1175 commands normally treat the last operand specially when it is a
1176 directory or a symbolic link to a directory. For example, @samp{cp
1177 source dest} is equivalent to @samp{cp source dest/source} if
1178 @file{dest} is a directory. Sometimes this behavior is not exactly
1179 what is wanted, so these commands support the following options to
1180 allow more fine-grained control:
1185 @itemx --no-target-directory
1186 @opindex --no-target-directory
1187 @cindex target directory
1188 @cindex destination directory
1189 Do not treat the last operand specially when it is a directory or a
1190 symbolic link to a directory. This can help avoid race conditions in
1191 programs that operate in a shared area. For example, when the command
1192 @samp{mv /tmp/source /tmp/dest} succeeds, there is no guarantee that
1193 @file{/tmp/source} was renamed to @file{/tmp/dest}: it could have been
1194 renamed to @file{/tmp/dest/source} instead, if some other process
1195 created @file{/tmp/dest} as a directory. However, if @file{mv
1196 -T /tmp/source /tmp/dest} succeeds, there is no
1197 question that @file{/tmp/source} was renamed to @file{/tmp/dest}.
1199 In the opposite situation, where you want the last operand to be
1200 treated as a directory and want a diagnostic otherwise, you can use
1201 the @option{--target-directory} (@option{-t}) option.
1203 @item -t @var{directory}
1204 @itemx @w{@kbd{--target-directory}=@var{directory}}
1205 @opindex --target-directory
1206 @cindex target directory
1207 @cindex destination directory
1208 Use @var{directory} as the directory component of each destination
1211 The interface for most programs is that after processing options and a
1212 finite (possibly zero) number of fixed-position arguments, the remaining
1213 argument list is either expected to be empty, or is a list of items
1214 (usually files) that will all be handled identically. The @command{xargs}
1215 program is designed to work well with this convention.
1217 The commands in the @command{mv}-family are unusual in that they take
1218 a variable number of arguments with a special case at the @emph{end}
1219 (namely, the target directory). This makes it nontrivial to perform some
1220 operations, e.g., ``move all files from here to ../d/'', because
1221 @code{mv * ../d/} might exhaust the argument space, and @code{ls | xargs ...}
1222 doesn't have a clean way to specify an extra final argument for each
1223 invocation of the subject command. (It can be done by going through a
1224 shell command, but that requires more human labor and brain power than
1227 The @w{@kbd{--target-directory}} (@option{-t}) option allows the @command{cp},
1228 @command{install}, @command{ln}, and @command{mv} programs to be used
1229 conveniently with @command{xargs}. For example, you can move the files
1230 from the current directory to a sibling directory, @code{d} like this:
1233 ls | xargs mv -t ../d --
1236 However, this doesn't move files whose names begin with @samp{.}.
1237 If you use the @sc{gnu} @command{find} program, you can move those
1238 files too, with this command:
1241 find . -mindepth 1 -maxdepth 1 \
1245 But both of the above approaches fail if there are no files in the
1246 current directory, or if any file has a name containing a blank or
1247 some other special characters.
1248 The following example removes those limitations and requires both
1249 @sc{gnu} @command{find} and @sc{gnu} @command{xargs}:
1252 find . -mindepth 1 -maxdepth 1 -print0 \
1253 | xargs --null --no-run-if-empty \
1260 The @option{--target-directory} (@option{-t}) and
1261 @option{--no-target-directory} (@option{-T})
1262 options cannot be combined.
1264 @node Trailing slashes
1265 @section Trailing slashes
1267 @cindex trailing slashes
1269 Some @sc{gnu} programs (at least @command{cp} and @command{mv}) allow you to
1270 remove any trailing slashes from each @var{source} argument before
1271 operating on it. The @w{@kbd{--strip-trailing-slashes}} option enables
1274 This is useful when a @var{source} argument may have a trailing slash and
1275 @c FIXME: mv's behavior in this case is system-dependent
1276 specify a symbolic link to a directory. This scenario is in fact rather
1277 common because some shells can automatically append a trailing slash when
1278 performing file name completion on such symbolic links. Without this
1279 option, @command{mv}, for example, (via the system's rename function) must
1280 interpret a trailing slash as a request to dereference the symbolic link
1281 and so must rename the indirectly referenced @emph{directory} and not
1282 the symbolic link. Although it may seem surprising that such behavior
1283 be the default, it is required by @acronym{POSIX} and is consistent with
1284 other parts of that standard.
1286 @node Traversing symlinks
1287 @section Traversing symlinks
1289 @cindex symbolic link to directory, controlling traversal of
1291 The following options modify how @command{chown} and @command{chgrp}
1292 @c FIXME: note that `du' has these options, too, but they have slightly
1293 @c different meaning.
1294 traverse a hierarchy when the @option{--recursive} (@option{-R})
1295 option is also specified.
1296 If more than one of the following options is specified, only the final
1298 These options specify whether processing a symbolic link to a directory
1299 entails operating on just the symbolic link or on all files in the
1300 hierarchy rooted at that directory.
1302 These options are independent of @option{--dereference} and
1303 @option{--no-dereference} (@option{-h}), which control whether to modify
1304 a symlink or its referent.
1311 @cindex symbolic link to directory, traverse each that is specified on the command line
1312 If @option{--recursive} (@option{-R}) is specified and
1313 a command line argument is a symbolic link to a directory, traverse it.
1320 @cindex symbolic link to directory, traverse each that is encountered
1321 In a recursive traversal, traverse every symbolic link to a directory
1322 that is encountered.
1329 @cindex symbolic link to directory, never traverse
1330 Do not traverse any symbolic links.
1331 This is the default if none of @option{-H}, @option{-L},
1332 or @option{-P} is specified.
1339 @node Treating / specially
1340 @section Treating @file{/} specially
1342 Certain commands can operate destructively on entire hierarchies.
1343 For example, if a user with appropriate privileges mistakenly runs
1344 @samp{rm -rf / tmp/junk}, that may remove
1345 all files on the entire system. Since there are so few
1346 legitimate uses for such a command,
1347 @sc{gnu} @command{rm} normally declines to operate on any directory
1348 that resolves to @file{/}. If you really want to try to remove all
1349 the files on your system, you can use the @option{--no-preserve-root}
1350 option, but the default behavior, specified by the
1351 @option{--preserve-option}, is safer for most purposes.
1353 The commands @command{chgrp}, @command{chmod} and @command{chown}
1354 can also operate destructively on entire hierarchies, so they too
1355 support these options. Although, unlike @command{rm}, they don't
1356 actually unlink files, these commands are arguably more dangerous
1357 when operating recursively on @file{/}, since they often work much
1358 more quickly, and hence damage more files before an alert user can
1359 interrupt them. Tradition and @acronym{POSIX} require these commands
1360 to operate recursively on @file{/}, so they default to
1361 @option{--no-preserve-root}, but using the @option{--preserve-root}
1362 option makes them safer for most purposes. For convenience you can
1363 specify @option{--preserve-root} in an alias or in a shell function.
1365 Note that the @option{--preserve-root} option also ensures
1366 that @command{chgrp} and @command{chown} do not modify @file{/}
1367 even when dereferencing a symlink pointing to @file{/}.
1369 @node Special built-in utilities
1370 @section Special built-in utilities
1372 Some programs like @command{nice} can invoke other programs; for
1373 example, the command @samp{nice cat file} invokes the program
1374 @command{cat} by executing the command @samp{cat file}. However,
1375 @dfn{special built-in utilities} like @command{exit} cannot be invoked
1376 this way. For example, the command @samp{nice exit} does not have a
1377 well-defined behavior: it may generate an error message instead of
1380 Here is a list of the special built-in utilities that are standardized
1381 by @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2004.
1384 @t{.@: : break continue eval exec exit export readonly
1385 return set shift times trap unset}
1388 For example, because @samp{.}, @samp{:}, and @samp{exec} are special,
1389 the commands @samp{nice . foo.sh}, @samp{nice :}, and @samp{nice exec
1390 pwd} do not work as you might expect.
1392 Many shells extend this list. For example, Bash has several extra
1393 special built-in utilities like @command{history}, and
1394 @command{suspend}, and with Bash the command @samp{nice suspend}
1395 generates an error message instead of suspending.
1397 @node Standards conformance
1398 @section Standards conformance
1400 @vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
1401 In a few cases, the @sc{gnu} utilities' default behavior is
1402 incompatible with the @acronym{POSIX} standard. To suppress these
1403 incompatibilities, define the @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} environment
1404 variable. Unless you are checking for @acronym{POSIX} conformance, you
1405 probably do not need to define @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT}.
1407 Newer versions of @acronym{POSIX} are occasionally incompatible with older
1408 versions. For example, older versions of @acronym{POSIX} required the
1409 command @samp{sort +1} to sort based on the second and succeeding
1410 fields in each input line, but starting with @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001
1411 the same command is required to sort the file named @file{+1}, and you
1412 must instead use the command @samp{sort -k 2} to get the field-based
1415 @vindex _POSIX2_VERSION
1416 The @sc{gnu} utilities normally conform to the version of @acronym{POSIX}
1417 that is standard for your system. To cause them to conform to a
1418 different version of @acronym{POSIX}, define the @env{_POSIX2_VERSION}
1419 environment variable to a value of the form @var{yyyymm} specifying
1420 the year and month the standard was adopted. Two values are currently
1421 supported for @env{_POSIX2_VERSION}: @samp{199209} stands for
1422 @acronym{POSIX} 1003.2-1992, and @samp{200112} stands for @acronym{POSIX}
1423 1003.1-2001. For example, if you have a newer system but are running software
1424 that assumes an older version of @acronym{POSIX} and uses @samp{sort +1}
1425 or @samp{tail +10}, you can work around any compatibility problems by setting
1426 @samp{_POSIX2_VERSION=199209} in your environment.
1428 @node Output of entire files
1429 @chapter Output of entire files
1431 @cindex output of entire files
1432 @cindex entire files, output of
1434 These commands read and write entire files, possibly transforming them
1438 * cat invocation:: Concatenate and write files.
1439 * tac invocation:: Concatenate and write files in reverse.
1440 * nl invocation:: Number lines and write files.
1441 * od invocation:: Write files in octal or other formats.
1442 * base64 invocation:: Transform data into printable data.
1445 @node cat invocation
1446 @section @command{cat}: Concatenate and write files
1449 @cindex concatenate and write files
1450 @cindex copying files
1452 @command{cat} copies each @var{file} (@samp{-} means standard input), or
1453 standard input if none are given, to standard output. Synopsis:
1456 cat [@var{option}] [@var{file}]@dots{}
1459 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
1467 Equivalent to @option{-vET}.
1470 @itemx --number-nonblank
1472 @opindex --number-nonblank
1473 Number all nonempty output lines, starting with 1.
1477 Equivalent to @option{-vE}.
1482 @opindex --show-ends
1483 Display a @samp{$} after the end of each line.
1489 Number all output lines, starting with 1.
1492 @itemx --squeeze-blank
1494 @opindex --squeeze-blank
1495 @cindex squeezing empty lines
1496 Suppress repeated adjacent empty lines; output just one empty line
1501 Equivalent to @option{-vT}.
1506 @opindex --show-tabs
1507 Display TAB characters as @samp{^I}.
1511 Ignored; for @acronym{POSIX} compatibility.
1514 @itemx --show-nonprinting
1516 @opindex --show-nonprinting
1517 Display control characters except for LFD and TAB using
1518 @samp{^} notation and precede characters that have the high bit set with
1523 On systems like MS-DOS that distinguish between text and binary files,
1524 @command{cat} normally reads and writes in binary mode. However,
1525 @command{cat} reads in text mode if one of the options
1526 @option{-bensAE} is used or if @command{cat} is reading from standard
1527 input and standard input is a terminal. Similarly, @command{cat}
1528 writes in text mode if one of the options @option{-bensAE} is used or
1529 if standard output is a terminal.
1536 # Output f's contents, then standard input, then g's contents.
1539 # Copy standard input to standard output.
1544 @node tac invocation
1545 @section @command{tac}: Concatenate and write files in reverse
1548 @cindex reversing files
1550 @command{tac} copies each @var{file} (@samp{-} means standard input), or
1551 standard input if none are given, to standard output, reversing the
1552 records (lines by default) in each separately. Synopsis:
1555 tac [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
1558 @dfn{Records} are separated by instances of a string (newline by
1559 default). By default, this separator string is attached to the end of
1560 the record that it follows in the file.
1562 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
1570 The separator is attached to the beginning of the record that it
1571 precedes in the file.
1577 Treat the separator string as a regular expression. Users of @command{tac}
1578 on MS-DOS/MS-Windows should note that, since @command{tac} reads files in
1579 binary mode, each line of a text file might end with a CR/LF pair
1580 instead of the Unix-style LF.
1582 @item -s @var{separator}
1583 @itemx --separator=@var{separator}
1585 @opindex --separator
1586 Use @var{separator} as the record separator, instead of newline.
1594 @section @command{nl}: Number lines and write files
1597 @cindex numbering lines
1598 @cindex line numbering
1600 @command{nl} writes each @var{file} (@samp{-} means standard input), or
1601 standard input if none are given, to standard output, with line numbers
1602 added to some or all of the lines. Synopsis:
1605 nl [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
1608 @cindex logical pages, numbering on
1609 @command{nl} decomposes its input into (logical) pages; by default, the
1610 line number is reset to 1 at the top of each logical page. @command{nl}
1611 treats all of the input files as a single document; it does not reset
1612 line numbers or logical pages between files.
1614 @cindex headers, numbering
1615 @cindex body, numbering
1616 @cindex footers, numbering
1617 A logical page consists of three sections: header, body, and footer.
1618 Any of the sections can be empty. Each can be numbered in a different
1619 style from the others.
1621 The beginnings of the sections of logical pages are indicated in the
1622 input file by a line containing exactly one of these delimiter strings:
1633 The two characters from which these strings are made can be changed from
1634 @samp{\} and @samp{:} via options (see below), but the pattern and
1635 length of each string cannot be changed.
1637 A section delimiter is replaced by an empty line on output. Any text
1638 that comes before the first section delimiter string in the input file
1639 is considered to be part of a body section, so @command{nl} treats a
1640 file that contains no section delimiters as a single body section.
1642 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
1646 @item -b @var{style}
1647 @itemx --body-numbering=@var{style}
1649 @opindex --body-numbering
1650 Select the numbering style for lines in the body section of each
1651 logical page. When a line is not numbered, the current line number
1652 is not incremented, but the line number separator character is still
1653 prepended to the line. The styles are:
1659 number only nonempty lines (default for body),
1661 do not number lines (default for header and footer),
1663 number only lines that contain a match for the basic regular
1664 expression @var{bre}.
1665 @xref{Regular Expressions, , Regular Expressions, grep, The GNU Grep Manual}.
1669 @itemx --section-delimiter=@var{cd}
1671 @opindex --section-delimiter
1672 @cindex section delimiters of pages
1673 Set the section delimiter characters to @var{cd}; default is
1674 @samp{\:}. If only @var{c} is given, the second remains @samp{:}.
1675 (Remember to protect @samp{\} or other metacharacters from shell
1676 expansion with quotes or extra backslashes.)
1678 @item -f @var{style}
1679 @itemx --footer-numbering=@var{style}
1681 @opindex --footer-numbering
1682 Analogous to @option{--body-numbering}.
1684 @item -h @var{style}
1685 @itemx --header-numbering=@var{style}
1687 @opindex --header-numbering
1688 Analogous to @option{--body-numbering}.
1690 @item -i @var{number}
1691 @itemx --line-increment=@var{number}
1693 @opindex --line-increment
1694 Increment line numbers by @var{number} (default 1).
1696 @item -l @var{number}
1697 @itemx --join-blank-lines=@var{number}
1699 @opindex --join-blank-lines
1700 @cindex empty lines, numbering
1701 @cindex blank lines, numbering
1702 Consider @var{number} (default 1) consecutive empty lines to be one
1703 logical line for numbering, and only number the last one. Where fewer
1704 than @var{number} consecutive empty lines occur, do not number them.
1705 An empty line is one that contains no characters, not even spaces
1708 @item -n @var{format}
1709 @itemx --number-format=@var{format}
1711 @opindex --number-format
1712 Select the line numbering format (default is @code{rn}):
1716 @opindex ln @r{format for @command{nl}}
1717 left justified, no leading zeros;
1719 @opindex rn @r{format for @command{nl}}
1720 right justified, no leading zeros;
1722 @opindex rz @r{format for @command{nl}}
1723 right justified, leading zeros.
1727 @itemx --no-renumber
1729 @opindex --no-renumber
1730 Do not reset the line number at the start of a logical page.
1732 @item -s @var{string}
1733 @itemx --number-separator=@var{string}
1735 @opindex --number-separator
1736 Separate the line number from the text line in the output with
1737 @var{string} (default is the TAB character).
1739 @item -v @var{number}
1740 @itemx --starting-line-number=@var{number}
1742 @opindex --starting-line-number
1743 Set the initial line number on each logical page to @var{number} (default 1).
1745 @item -w @var{number}
1746 @itemx --number-width=@var{number}
1748 @opindex --number-width
1749 Use @var{number} characters for line numbers (default 6).
1757 @section @command{od}: Write files in octal or other formats
1760 @cindex octal dump of files
1761 @cindex hex dump of files
1762 @cindex ASCII dump of files
1763 @cindex file contents, dumping unambiguously
1765 @command{od} writes an unambiguous representation of each @var{file}
1766 (@samp{-} means standard input), or standard input if none are given.
1770 od [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
1771 od [-abcdfilosx]@dots{} [@var{file}] [[+]@var{offset}[.][b]]
1772 od [@var{option}]@dots{} --traditional [@var{file}] [[+]@var{offset}[.][b] [[+]@var{label}[.][b]]]
1775 Each line of output consists of the offset in the input, followed by
1776 groups of data from the file. By default, @command{od} prints the offset in
1777 octal, and each group of file data is a C @code{short int}'s worth of input
1778 printed as a single octal number.
1780 If @var{offset} is given, it specifies how many input bytes to skip
1781 before formatting and writing. By default, it is interpreted as an
1782 octal number, but the optional trailing decimal point causes it to be
1783 interpreted as decimal. If no decimal is specified and the offset
1784 begins with @samp{0x} or @samp{0X} it is interpreted as a hexadecimal
1785 number. If there is a trailing @samp{b}, the number of bytes skipped
1786 will be @var{offset} multiplied by 512.
1788 If a command is of both the first and second forms, the second form is
1789 assumed if the last operand begins with @samp{+} or (if there are two
1790 operands) a digit. For example, in @samp{od foo 10} and @samp{od +10}
1791 the @samp{10} is an offset, whereas in @samp{od 10} the @samp{10} is a
1794 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
1798 @item -A @var{radix}
1799 @itemx --address-radix=@var{radix}
1801 @opindex --address-radix
1802 @cindex radix for file offsets
1803 @cindex file offset radix
1804 Select the base in which file offsets are printed. @var{radix} can
1805 be one of the following:
1815 none (do not print offsets).
1818 The default is octal.
1820 @item -j @var{bytes}
1821 @itemx --skip-bytes=@var{bytes}
1823 @opindex --skip-bytes
1824 Skip @var{bytes} input bytes before formatting and writing. If
1825 @var{bytes} begins with @samp{0x} or @samp{0X}, it is interpreted in
1826 hexadecimal; otherwise, if it begins with @samp{0}, in octal; otherwise,
1828 @multiplierSuffixes{bytes}
1830 @item -N @var{bytes}
1831 @itemx --read-bytes=@var{bytes}
1833 @opindex --read-bytes
1834 Output at most @var{bytes} bytes of the input. Prefixes and suffixes on
1835 @code{bytes} are interpreted as for the @option{-j} option.
1837 @item -S @var{bytes}
1838 @itemx --strings[=@var{bytes}]
1841 @cindex string constants, outputting
1842 Instead of the normal output, output only @dfn{string constants}: at
1843 least @var{bytes} consecutive @acronym{ASCII} graphic characters,
1844 followed by a zero byte (@acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul}).
1845 Prefixes and suffixes on @code{bytes} are interpreted as for the
1848 If @var{n} is omitted with @option{--strings}, the default is 3.
1851 @itemx --format=@var{type}
1854 Select the format in which to output the file data. @var{type} is a
1855 string of one or more of the below type indicator characters. If you
1856 include more than one type indicator character in a single @var{type}
1857 string, or use this option more than once, @command{od} writes one copy
1858 of each output line using each of the data types that you specified,
1859 in the order that you specified.
1861 Adding a trailing ``z'' to any type specification appends a display
1862 of the @acronym{ASCII} character representation of the printable characters
1863 to the output line generated by the type specification.
1867 named character, ignoring high-order bit
1869 @acronym{ASCII} character or backslash escape,
1882 The type @code{a} outputs things like @samp{sp} for space, @samp{nl} for
1883 newline, and @samp{nul} for a zero byte. Only the least significant
1884 seven bits of each byte is used; the high-order bit is ignored.
1885 Type @code{c} outputs
1886 @samp{ }, @samp{\n}, and @code{\0}, respectively.
1889 Except for types @samp{a} and @samp{c}, you can specify the number
1890 of bytes to use in interpreting each number in the given data type
1891 by following the type indicator character with a decimal integer.
1892 Alternately, you can specify the size of one of the C compiler's
1893 built-in data types by following the type indicator character with
1894 one of the following characters. For integers (@samp{d}, @samp{o},
1895 @samp{u}, @samp{x}):
1908 For floating point (@code{f}):
1920 @itemx --output-duplicates
1922 @opindex --output-duplicates
1923 Output consecutive lines that are identical. By default, when two or
1924 more consecutive output lines would be identical, @command{od} outputs only
1925 the first line, and puts just an asterisk on the following line to
1926 indicate the elision.
1929 @itemx --width[=@var{n}]
1932 Dump @code{n} input bytes per output line. This must be a multiple of
1933 the least common multiple of the sizes associated with the specified
1936 If this option is not given at all, the default is 16. If @var{n} is
1937 omitted, the default is 32.
1941 The next several options are shorthands for format specifications.
1942 @sc{gnu} @command{od} accepts any combination of shorthands and format
1943 specification options. These options accumulate.
1949 Output as named characters. Equivalent to @samp{-t a}.
1953 Output as octal bytes. Equivalent to @samp{-t o1}.
1957 Output as @acronym{ASCII} characters or backslash escapes. Equivalent to
1962 Output as unsigned decimal two-byte units. Equivalent to @samp{-t u2}.
1966 Output as floats. Equivalent to @samp{-t fF}.
1970 Output as decimal ints. Equivalent to @samp{-t dI}.
1974 Output as decimal long ints. Equivalent to @samp{-t dL}.
1978 Output as octal two-byte units. Equivalent to @option{-t o2}.
1982 Output as decimal two-byte units. Equivalent to @option{-t d2}.
1986 Output as hexadecimal two-byte units. Equivalent to @samp{-t x2}.
1989 @opindex --traditional
1990 Recognize the non-option label argument that traditional @command{od}
1991 accepted. The following syntax:
1994 od --traditional [@var{file}] [[+]@var{offset}[.][b] [[+]@var{label}[.][b]]]
1998 can be used to specify at most one file and optional arguments
1999 specifying an offset and a pseudo-start address, @var{label}.
2000 The @var{label} argument is interpreted
2001 just like @var{offset}, but it specifies an initial pseudo-address. The
2002 pseudo-addresses are displayed in parentheses following any normal
2009 @node base64 invocation
2010 @section @command{base64}: Transform data into printable data
2013 @cindex base64 encoding
2015 @command{base64} transforms data read from a file, or standard input,
2016 into (or from) base64 encoded form. The base64 encoded form uses
2017 printable @acronym{ASCII} characters to represent binary data.
2021 base64 [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]
2022 base64 --decode [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]
2025 The base64 encoding expands data to roughly 133% of the original.
2026 The format conforms to
2027 @uref{ftp://ftp.rfc-editor.org/in-notes/rfc4648.txt, RFC 4648}.
2029 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
2034 @itemx --wrap=@var{cols}
2038 @cindex column to wrap data after
2039 During encoding, wrap lines after @var{cols} characters. This must be
2042 The default is to wrap after 76 characters. Use the value 0 to
2043 disable line wrapping altogether.
2049 @cindex Decode base64 data
2050 @cindex Base64 decoding
2051 Change the mode of operation, from the default of encoding data, to
2052 decoding data. Input is expected to be base64 encoded data, and the
2053 output will be the original data.
2056 @itemx --ignore-garbage
2058 @opindex --ignore-garbage
2059 @cindex Ignore garbage in base64 stream
2060 When decoding, newlines are always accepted.
2061 During decoding, ignore unrecognized bytes,
2062 to permit distorted data to be decoded.
2069 @node Formatting file contents
2070 @chapter Formatting file contents
2072 @cindex formatting file contents
2074 These commands reformat the contents of files.
2077 * fmt invocation:: Reformat paragraph text.
2078 * pr invocation:: Paginate or columnate files for printing.
2079 * fold invocation:: Wrap input lines to fit in specified width.
2083 @node fmt invocation
2084 @section @command{fmt}: Reformat paragraph text
2087 @cindex reformatting paragraph text
2088 @cindex paragraphs, reformatting
2089 @cindex text, reformatting
2091 @command{fmt} fills and joins lines to produce output lines of (at most)
2092 a given number of characters (75 by default). Synopsis:
2095 fmt [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
2098 @command{fmt} reads from the specified @var{file} arguments (or standard
2099 input if none are given), and writes to standard output.
2101 By default, blank lines, spaces between words, and indentation are
2102 preserved in the output; successive input lines with different
2103 indentation are not joined; tabs are expanded on input and introduced on
2106 @cindex line-breaking
2107 @cindex sentences and line-breaking
2108 @cindex Knuth, Donald E.
2109 @cindex Plass, Michael F.
2110 @command{fmt} prefers breaking lines at the end of a sentence, and tries to
2111 avoid line breaks after the first word of a sentence or before the last
2112 word of a sentence. A @dfn{sentence break} is defined as either the end
2113 of a paragraph or a word ending in any of @samp{.?!}, followed by two
2114 spaces or end of line, ignoring any intervening parentheses or quotes.
2115 Like @TeX{}, @command{fmt} reads entire ``paragraphs'' before choosing line
2116 breaks; the algorithm is a variant of that given by Donald E. Knuth
2117 and Michael F. Plass in ``Breaking Paragraphs Into Lines'',
2118 @cite{Software---Practice & Experience} @b{11}, 11 (November 1981),
2121 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
2126 @itemx --crown-margin
2128 @opindex --crown-margin
2129 @cindex crown margin
2130 @dfn{Crown margin} mode: preserve the indentation of the first two
2131 lines within a paragraph, and align the left margin of each subsequent
2132 line with that of the second line.
2135 @itemx --tagged-paragraph
2137 @opindex --tagged-paragraph
2138 @cindex tagged paragraphs
2139 @dfn{Tagged paragraph} mode: like crown margin mode, except that if
2140 indentation of the first line of a paragraph is the same as the
2141 indentation of the second, the first line is treated as a one-line
2147 @opindex --split-only
2148 Split lines only. Do not join short lines to form longer ones. This
2149 prevents sample lines of code, and other such ``formatted'' text from
2150 being unduly combined.
2153 @itemx --uniform-spacing
2155 @opindex --uniform-spacing
2156 Uniform spacing. Reduce spacing between words to one space, and spacing
2157 between sentences to two spaces.
2160 @itemx -w @var{width}
2161 @itemx --width=@var{width}
2162 @opindex -@var{width}
2165 Fill output lines up to @var{width} characters (default 75). @command{fmt}
2166 initially tries to make lines about 7% shorter than this, to give it
2167 room to balance line lengths.
2169 @item -p @var{prefix}
2170 @itemx --prefix=@var{prefix}
2171 Only lines beginning with @var{prefix} (possibly preceded by whitespace)
2172 are subject to formatting. The prefix and any preceding whitespace are
2173 stripped for the formatting and then re-attached to each formatted output
2174 line. One use is to format certain kinds of program comments, while
2175 leaving the code unchanged.
2183 @section @command{pr}: Paginate or columnate files for printing
2186 @cindex printing, preparing files for
2187 @cindex multicolumn output, generating
2188 @cindex merging files in parallel
2190 @command{pr} writes each @var{file} (@samp{-} means standard input), or
2191 standard input if none are given, to standard output, paginating and
2192 optionally outputting in multicolumn format; optionally merges all
2193 @var{file}s, printing all in parallel, one per column. Synopsis:
2196 pr [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
2200 By default, a 5-line header is printed at each page: two blank lines;
2201 a line with the date, the file name, and the page count; and two more
2202 blank lines. A footer of five blank lines is also printed.
2203 The default @var{page_length} is 66
2204 lines. The default number of text lines is therefore 56.
2205 The text line of the header takes the form
2206 @samp{@var{date} @var{string} @var{page}}, with spaces inserted around
2207 @var{string} so that the line takes up the full @var{page_width}. Here,
2208 @var{date} is the date (see the @option{-D} or @option{--date-format}
2209 option for details), @var{string} is the centered header string, and
2210 @var{page} identifies the page number. The @env{LC_MESSAGES} locale
2211 category affects the spelling of @var{page}; in the default C locale, it
2212 is @samp{Page @var{number}} where @var{number} is the decimal page
2215 Form feeds in the input cause page breaks in the output. Multiple form
2216 feeds produce empty pages.
2218 Columns are of equal width, separated by an optional string (default
2219 is @samp{space}). For multicolumn output, lines will always be truncated to
2220 @var{page_width} (default 72), unless you use the @option{-J} option.
2222 column output no line truncation occurs by default. Use @option{-W} option to
2223 truncate lines in that case.
2225 The following changes were made in version 1.22i and apply to later
2226 versions of @command{pr}:
2227 @c FIXME: this whole section here sounds very awkward to me. I
2228 @c made a few small changes, but really it all needs to be redone. - Brian
2229 @c OK, I fixed another sentence or two, but some of it I just don't understand.
2234 Some small @var{letter options} (@option{-s}, @option{-w}) have been
2235 redefined for better @acronym{POSIX} compliance. The output of some further
2236 cases has been adapted to other Unix systems. These changes are not
2237 compatible with earlier versions of the program.
2240 Some @var{new capital letter} options (@option{-J}, @option{-S}, @option{-W})
2241 have been introduced to turn off unexpected interferences of small letter
2242 options. The @option{-N} option and the second argument @var{last_page}
2243 of @samp{+FIRST_PAGE} offer more flexibility. The detailed handling of
2244 form feeds set in the input files requires the @option{-T} option.
2247 Capital letter options override small letter ones.
2250 Some of the option-arguments (compare @option{-s}, @option{-e},
2251 @option{-i}, @option{-n}) cannot be specified as separate arguments from the
2252 preceding option letter (already stated in the @acronym{POSIX} specification).
2255 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
2259 @item +@var{first_page}[:@var{last_page}]
2260 @itemx --pages=@var{first_page}[:@var{last_page}]
2261 @c The two following @opindex lines evoke warnings because they contain `:'
2262 @c The `info' spec does not permit that. If we use those lines, we end
2263 @c up with truncated index entries that don't work.
2264 @c @opindex +@var{first_page}[:@var{last_page}]
2265 @c @opindex --pages=@var{first_page}[:@var{last_page}]
2266 @opindex +@var{page_range}
2267 @opindex --pages=@var{page_range}
2268 Begin printing with page @var{first_page} and stop with @var{last_page}.
2269 Missing @samp{:@var{last_page}} implies end of file. While estimating
2270 the number of skipped pages each form feed in the input file results
2271 in a new page. Page counting with and without @samp{+@var{first_page}}
2272 is identical. By default, counting starts with the first page of input
2273 file (not first page printed). Line numbering may be altered by @option{-N}
2277 @itemx --columns=@var{column}
2278 @opindex -@var{column}
2280 @cindex down columns
2281 With each single @var{file}, produce @var{column} columns of output
2282 (default is 1) and print columns down, unless @option{-a} is used. The
2283 column width is automatically decreased as @var{column} increases; unless
2284 you use the @option{-W/-w} option to increase @var{page_width} as well.
2285 This option might well cause some lines to be truncated. The number of
2286 lines in the columns on each page are balanced. The options @option{-e}
2287 and @option{-i} are on for multiple text-column output. Together with
2288 @option{-J} option column alignment and line truncation is turned off.
2289 Lines of full length are joined in a free field format and @option{-S}
2290 option may set field separators. @option{-@var{column}} may not be used
2291 with @option{-m} option.
2297 @cindex across columns
2298 With each single @var{file}, print columns across rather than down. The
2299 @option{-@var{column}} option must be given with @var{column} greater than one.
2300 If a line is too long to fit in a column, it is truncated.
2303 @itemx --show-control-chars
2305 @opindex --show-control-chars
2306 Print control characters using hat notation (e.g., @samp{^G}); print
2307 other nonprinting characters in octal backslash notation. By default,
2308 nonprinting characters are not changed.
2311 @itemx --double-space
2313 @opindex --double-space
2314 @cindex double spacing
2315 Double space the output.
2317 @item -D @var{format}
2318 @itemx --date-format=@var{format}
2319 @cindex time formats
2320 @cindex formatting times
2321 Format header dates using @var{format}, using the same conventions as
2322 for the command @samp{date +@var{format}}; @xref{date invocation}.
2323 Except for directives, which start with
2324 @samp{%}, characters in @var{format} are printed unchanged. You can use
2325 this option to specify an arbitrary string in place of the header date,
2326 e.g., @option{--date-format="Monday morning"}.
2328 @vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
2330 The default date format is @samp{%Y-%m-%d %H:%M} (for example,
2331 @samp{2001-12-04 23:59});
2332 but if the @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} environment variable is set
2333 and the @env{LC_TIME} locale category specifies the @acronym{POSIX}
2334 locale, the default is @samp{%b %e %H:%M %Y} (for example,
2335 @samp{Dec@ @ 4 23:59 2001}.
2338 Time stamps are listed according to the time zone rules specified by
2339 the @env{TZ} environment variable, or by the system default rules if
2340 @env{TZ} is not set. @xref{TZ Variable,, Specifying the Time Zone
2341 with @env{TZ}, libc, The GNU C Library Reference Manual}.
2343 @item -e[@var{in-tabchar}[@var{in-tabwidth}]]
2344 @itemx --expand-tabs[=@var{in-tabchar}[@var{in-tabwidth}]]
2346 @opindex --expand-tabs
2348 Expand @var{tab}s to spaces on input. Optional argument @var{in-tabchar} is
2349 the input tab character (default is the TAB character). Second optional
2350 argument @var{in-tabwidth} is the input tab character's width (default
2358 @opindex --form-feed
2359 Use a form feed instead of newlines to separate output pages. This does
2360 not alter the default page length of 66 lines.
2362 @item -h @var{header}
2363 @itemx --header=@var{header}
2366 Replace the file name in the header with the centered string @var{header}.
2367 When using the shell, @var{header} should be quoted and should be
2368 separated from @option{-h} by a space.
2370 @item -i[@var{out-tabchar}[@var{out-tabwidth}]]
2371 @itemx --output-tabs[=@var{out-tabchar}[@var{out-tabwidth}]]
2373 @opindex --output-tabs
2375 Replace spaces with @var{tab}s on output. Optional argument @var{out-tabchar}
2376 is the output tab character (default is the TAB character). Second optional
2377 argument @var{out-tabwidth} is the output tab character's width (default
2383 @opindex --join-lines
2384 Merge lines of full length. Used together with the column options
2385 @option{-@var{column}}, @option{-a -@var{column}} or @option{-m}. Turns off
2386 @option{-W/-w} line truncation;
2387 no column alignment used; may be used with
2388 @option{--sep-string[=@var{string}]}. @option{-J} has been introduced
2389 (together with @option{-W} and @option{--sep-string})
2390 to disentangle the old (@acronym{POSIX}-compliant) options @option{-w} and
2391 @option{-s} along with the three column options.
2394 @item -l @var{page_length}
2395 @itemx --length=@var{page_length}
2398 Set the page length to @var{page_length} (default 66) lines, including
2399 the lines of the header [and the footer]. If @var{page_length} is less
2400 than or equal to 10, the header and footer are omitted, as if the
2401 @option{-t} option had been given.
2407 Merge and print all @var{file}s in parallel, one in each column. If a
2408 line is too long to fit in a column, it is truncated, unless the @option{-J}
2409 option is used. @option{--sep-string[=@var{string}]} may be used.
2411 some @var{file}s (form feeds set) produce empty columns, still marked
2412 by @var{string}. The result is a continuous line numbering and column
2413 marking throughout the whole merged file. Completely empty merged pages
2414 show no separators or line numbers. The default header becomes
2415 @samp{@var{date} @var{page}} with spaces inserted in the middle; this
2416 may be used with the @option{-h} or @option{--header} option to fill up
2417 the middle blank part.
2419 @item -n[@var{number-separator}[@var{digits}]]
2420 @itemx --number-lines[=@var{number-separator}[@var{digits}]]
2422 @opindex --number-lines
2423 Provide @var{digits} digit line numbering (default for @var{digits} is
2424 5). With multicolumn output the number occupies the first @var{digits}
2425 column positions of each text column or only each line of @option{-m}
2426 output. With single column output the number precedes each line just as
2427 @option{-m} does. Default counting of the line numbers starts with the
2428 first line of the input file (not the first line printed, compare the
2429 @option{--page} option and @option{-N} option).
2430 Optional argument @var{number-separator} is the character appended to
2431 the line number to separate it from the text followed. The default
2432 separator is the TAB character. In a strict sense a TAB is always
2433 printed with single column output only. The TAB width varies
2434 with the TAB position, e.g., with the left @var{margin} specified
2435 by @option{-o} option. With multicolumn output priority is given to
2436 @samp{equal width of output columns} (a @acronym{POSIX} specification).
2437 The TAB width is fixed to the value of the first column and does
2438 not change with different values of left @var{margin}. That means a
2439 fixed number of spaces is always printed in the place of the
2440 @var{number-separator} TAB. The tabification depends upon the output
2443 @item -N @var{line_number}
2444 @itemx --first-line-number=@var{line_number}
2446 @opindex --first-line-number
2447 Start line counting with the number @var{line_number} at first line of
2448 first page printed (in most cases not the first line of the input file).
2450 @item -o @var{margin}
2451 @itemx --indent=@var{margin}
2454 @cindex indenting lines
2456 Indent each line with a margin @var{margin} spaces wide (default is zero).
2457 The total page width is the size of the margin plus the @var{page_width}
2458 set with the @option{-W/-w} option. A limited overflow may occur with
2459 numbered single column output (compare @option{-n} option).
2462 @itemx --no-file-warnings
2464 @opindex --no-file-warnings
2465 Do not print a warning message when an argument @var{file} cannot be
2466 opened. (The exit status will still be nonzero, however.)
2468 @item -s[@var{char}]
2469 @itemx --separator[=@var{char}]
2471 @opindex --separator
2472 Separate columns by a single character @var{char}. The default for
2473 @var{char} is the TAB character without @option{-w} and @samp{no
2474 character} with @option{-w}. Without @option{-s} the default separator
2475 @samp{space} is set. @option{-s[char]} turns off line truncation of all
2476 three column options (@option{-COLUMN}|@option{-a -COLUMN}|@option{-m}) unless
2477 @option{-w} is set. This is a @acronym{POSIX}-compliant formulation.
2480 @item -S@var{string}
2481 @itemx --sep-string[=@var{string}]
2483 @opindex --sep-string
2484 Use @var{string} to separate output columns. The @option{-S} option doesn't
2485 affect the @option{-W/-w} option, unlike the @option{-s} option which does. It
2486 does not affect line truncation or column alignment.
2487 Without @option{-S}, and with @option{-J}, @command{pr} uses the default output
2489 Without @option{-S} or @option{-J}, @command{pr} uses a @samp{space}
2490 (same as @option{-S"@w{ }"}). @option{--sep-string} with no
2491 @samp{=@var{string}} is equivalent to @option{--sep-string=""}.
2494 @itemx --omit-header
2496 @opindex --omit-header
2497 Do not print the usual header [and footer] on each page, and do not fill
2498 out the bottom of pages (with blank lines or a form feed). No page
2499 structure is produced, but form feeds set in the input files are retained.
2500 The predefined pagination is not changed. @option{-t} or @option{-T} may be
2501 useful together with other options; e.g.: @option{-t -e4}, expand TAB characters
2502 in the input file to 4 spaces but don't make any other changes. Use of
2503 @option{-t} overrides @option{-h}.
2506 @itemx --omit-pagination
2508 @opindex --omit-pagination
2509 Do not print header [and footer]. In addition eliminate all form feeds
2510 set in the input files.
2513 @itemx --show-nonprinting
2515 @opindex --show-nonprinting
2516 Print nonprinting characters in octal backslash notation.
2518 @item -w @var{page_width}
2519 @itemx --width=@var{page_width}
2522 Set page width to @var{page_width} characters for multiple text-column
2523 output only (default for @var{page_width} is 72). @option{-s[CHAR]} turns
2524 off the default page width and any line truncation and column alignment.
2525 Lines of full length are merged, regardless of the column options
2526 set. No @var{page_width} setting is possible with single column output.
2527 A @acronym{POSIX}-compliant formulation.
2529 @item -W @var{page_width}
2530 @itemx --page_width=@var{page_width}
2532 @opindex --page_width
2533 Set the page width to @var{page_width} characters. That's valid with and
2534 without a column option. Text lines are truncated, unless @option{-J}
2535 is used. Together with one of the three column options
2536 (@option{-@var{column}}, @option{-a -@var{column}} or @option{-m}) column
2537 alignment is always used. The separator options @option{-S} or @option{-s}
2538 don't affect the @option{-W} option. Default is 72 characters. Without
2539 @option{-W @var{page_width}} and without any of the column options NO line
2540 truncation is used (defined to keep downward compatibility and to meet
2541 most frequent tasks). That's equivalent to @option{-W 72 -J}. The header
2542 line is never truncated.
2549 @node fold invocation
2550 @section @command{fold}: Wrap input lines to fit in specified width
2553 @cindex wrapping long input lines
2554 @cindex folding long input lines
2556 @command{fold} writes each @var{file} (@option{-} means standard input), or
2557 standard input if none are given, to standard output, breaking long
2561 fold [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
2564 By default, @command{fold} breaks lines wider than 80 columns. The output
2565 is split into as many lines as necessary.
2567 @cindex screen columns
2568 @command{fold} counts screen columns by default; thus, a tab may count more
2569 than one column, backspace decreases the column count, and carriage
2570 return sets the column to zero.
2572 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
2580 Count bytes rather than columns, so that tabs, backspaces, and carriage
2581 returns are each counted as taking up one column, just like other
2588 Break at word boundaries: the line is broken after the last blank before
2589 the maximum line length. If the line contains no such blanks, the line
2590 is broken at the maximum line length as usual.
2592 @item -w @var{width}
2593 @itemx --width=@var{width}
2596 Use a maximum line length of @var{width} columns instead of 80.
2598 For compatibility @command{fold} supports an obsolete option syntax
2599 @option{-@var{width}}. New scripts should use @option{-w @var{width}}
2607 @node Output of parts of files
2608 @chapter Output of parts of files
2610 @cindex output of parts of files
2611 @cindex parts of files, output of
2613 These commands output pieces of the input.
2616 * head invocation:: Output the first part of files.
2617 * tail invocation:: Output the last part of files.
2618 * split invocation:: Split a file into fixed-size pieces.
2619 * csplit invocation:: Split a file into context-determined pieces.
2622 @node head invocation
2623 @section @command{head}: Output the first part of files
2626 @cindex initial part of files, outputting
2627 @cindex first part of files, outputting
2629 @command{head} prints the first part (10 lines by default) of each
2630 @var{file}; it reads from standard input if no files are given or
2631 when given a @var{file} of @option{-}. Synopsis:
2634 head [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
2637 If more than one @var{file} is specified, @command{head} prints a
2638 one-line header consisting of:
2641 ==> @var{file name} <==
2645 before the output for each @var{file}.
2647 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
2652 @itemx --bytes=@var{k}
2655 Print the first @var{k} bytes, instead of initial lines.
2656 However, if @var{k} starts with a @samp{-},
2657 print all but the last @var{k} bytes of each file.
2658 @multiplierSuffixes{k}
2661 @itemx --lines=@var{k}
2664 Output the first @var{k} lines.
2665 However, if @var{k} starts with a @samp{-},
2666 print all but the last @var{k} lines of each file.
2667 Size multiplier suffixes are the same as with the @option{-c} option.
2675 Never print file name headers.
2681 Always print file name headers.
2685 For compatibility @command{head} also supports an obsolete option syntax
2686 @option{-@var{count}@var{options}}, which is recognized only if it is
2687 specified first. @var{count} is a decimal number optionally followed
2688 by a size letter (@samp{b}, @samp{k}, @samp{m}) as in @option{-c}, or
2689 @samp{l} to mean count by lines, or other option letters (@samp{cqv}).
2690 Scripts intended for standard hosts should use @option{-c @var{count}}
2691 or @option{-n @var{count}} instead. If your script must also run on
2692 hosts that support only the obsolete syntax, it is usually simpler to
2693 avoid @command{head}, e.g., by using @samp{sed 5q} instead of
2699 @node tail invocation
2700 @section @command{tail}: Output the last part of files
2703 @cindex last part of files, outputting
2705 @command{tail} prints the last part (10 lines by default) of each
2706 @var{file}; it reads from standard input if no files are given or
2707 when given a @var{file} of @samp{-}. Synopsis:
2710 tail [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
2713 If more than one @var{file} is specified, @command{tail} prints a
2714 one-line header consisting of:
2717 ==> @var{file name} <==
2721 before the output for each @var{file}.
2723 @cindex BSD @command{tail}
2724 @sc{gnu} @command{tail} can output any amount of data (some other versions of
2725 @command{tail} cannot). It also has no @option{-r} option (print in
2726 reverse), since reversing a file is really a different job from printing
2727 the end of a file; BSD @command{tail} (which is the one with @option{-r}) can
2728 only reverse files that are at most as large as its buffer, which is
2729 typically 32 KiB@. A more reliable and versatile way to reverse files is
2730 the @sc{gnu} @command{tac} command.
2732 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
2737 @itemx --bytes=@var{k}
2740 Output the last @var{k} bytes, instead of final lines.
2741 However, if @var{k} starts with a @samp{+}, start printing with the
2742 @var{k}th byte from the start of each file, instead of from the end.
2743 @multiplierSuffixes{k}
2746 @itemx --follow[=@var{how}]
2749 @cindex growing files
2750 @vindex name @r{follow option}
2751 @vindex descriptor @r{follow option}
2752 Loop forever trying to read more characters at the end of the file,
2753 presumably because the file is growing.
2754 If more than one file is given, @command{tail} prints a header whenever it
2755 gets output from a different file, to indicate which file that output is
2758 There are two ways to specify how you'd like to track files with this option,
2759 but that difference is noticeable only when a followed file is removed or
2761 If you'd like to continue to track the end of a growing file even after
2762 it has been unlinked, use @option{--follow=descriptor}. This is the default
2763 behavior, but it is not useful if you're tracking a log file that may be
2764 rotated (removed or renamed, then reopened). In that case, use
2765 @option{--follow=name} to track the named file by reopening it periodically
2766 to see if it has been removed and recreated by some other program.
2768 No matter which method you use, if the tracked file is determined to have
2769 shrunk, @command{tail} prints a message saying the file has been truncated
2770 and resumes tracking the end of the file from the newly-determined endpoint.
2772 When a file is removed, @command{tail}'s behavior depends on whether it is
2773 following the name or the descriptor. When following by name, tail can
2774 detect that a file has been removed and gives a message to that effect,
2775 and if @option{--retry} has been specified it will continue checking
2776 periodically to see if the file reappears.
2777 When following a descriptor, tail does not detect that the file has
2778 been unlinked or renamed and issues no message; even though the file
2779 may no longer be accessible via its original name, it may still be
2782 The option values @samp{descriptor} and @samp{name} may be specified only
2783 with the long form of the option, not with @option{-f}.
2785 @vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
2786 If @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} is set, the @option{-f} option is ignored if
2787 no @var{file} operand is specified and standard input is a FIFO or a pipe.
2791 This option is the same as @option{--follow=name --retry}. That is, tail
2792 will attempt to reopen a file when it is removed. Should this fail, tail
2793 will keep trying until it becomes accessible again.
2797 This option is useful mainly when following by name (i.e., with
2798 @option{--follow=name}).
2799 Without this option, when tail encounters a file that doesn't
2800 exist or is otherwise inaccessible, it reports that fact and
2801 never checks it again.
2803 @itemx --sleep-interval=@var{number}
2804 @opindex --sleep-interval
2805 Change the number of seconds to wait between iterations (the default is 1.0).
2806 During one iteration, every specified file is checked to see if it has
2808 Historical implementations of @command{tail} have required that
2809 @var{number} be an integer. However, GNU @command{tail} accepts
2810 an arbitrary floating point number (using a period before any
2813 @itemx --pid=@var{pid}
2815 When following by name or by descriptor, you may specify the process ID,
2816 @var{pid}, of the sole writer of all @var{file} arguments. Then, shortly
2817 after that process terminates, tail will also terminate. This will
2818 work properly only if the writer and the tailing process are running on
2819 the same machine. For example, to save the output of a build in a file
2820 and to watch the file grow, if you invoke @command{make} and @command{tail}
2821 like this then the tail process will stop when your build completes.
2822 Without this option, you would have had to kill the @code{tail -f}
2826 $ make >& makerr & tail --pid=$! -f makerr
2829 If you specify a @var{pid} that is not in use or that does not correspond
2830 to the process that is writing to the tailed files, then @command{tail}
2831 may terminate long before any @var{file}s stop growing or it may not
2832 terminate until long after the real writer has terminated.
2833 Note that @option{--pid} cannot be supported on some systems; @command{tail}
2834 will print a warning if this is the case.
2836 @itemx --max-unchanged-stats=@var{n}
2837 @opindex --max-unchanged-stats
2838 When tailing a file by name, if there have been @var{n} (default
2839 n=@value{DEFAULT_MAX_N_UNCHANGED_STATS_BETWEEN_OPENS}) consecutive
2840 iterations for which the file has not changed, then
2841 @code{open}/@code{fstat} the file to determine if that file name is
2842 still associated with the same device/inode-number pair as before.
2843 When following a log file that is rotated, this is approximately the
2844 number of seconds between when tail prints the last pre-rotation lines
2845 and when it prints the lines that have accumulated in the new log file.
2846 This option is meaningful only when following by name.
2849 @itemx --lines=@var{k}
2852 Output the last @var{k} lines.
2853 However, if @var{k} starts with a @samp{+}, start printing with the
2854 @var{k}th line from the start of each file, instead of from the end.
2855 Size multiplier suffixes are the same as with the @option{-c} option.
2863 Never print file name headers.
2869 Always print file name headers.
2873 For compatibility @command{tail} also supports an obsolete usage
2874 @samp{tail -[@var{count}][bcl][f] [@var{file}]}, which is recognized
2875 only if it does not conflict with the usage described
2876 above. This obsolete form uses exactly one option and at most one
2877 file. In the option, @var{count} is an optional decimal number optionally
2878 followed by a size letter (@samp{b}, @samp{c}, @samp{l}) to mean count
2879 by 512-byte blocks, bytes, or lines, optionally followed by @samp{f}
2880 which has the same meaning as @option{-f}.
2882 @vindex _POSIX2_VERSION
2883 On older systems, the leading @samp{-} can be replaced by @samp{+} in
2884 the obsolete option syntax with the same meaning as in counts, and
2885 obsolete usage overrides normal usage when the two conflict.
2886 This obsolete behavior can be enabled or disabled with the
2887 @env{_POSIX2_VERSION} environment variable (@pxref{Standards
2890 Scripts intended for use on standard hosts should avoid obsolete
2891 syntax and should use @option{-c @var{count}[b]}, @option{-n
2892 @var{count}}, and/or @option{-f} instead. If your script must also
2893 run on hosts that support only the obsolete syntax, you can often
2894 rewrite it to avoid problematic usages, e.g., by using @samp{sed -n
2895 '$p'} rather than @samp{tail -1}. If that's not possible, the script
2896 can use a test like @samp{if tail -c +1 </dev/null >/dev/null 2>&1;
2897 then @dots{}} to decide which syntax to use.
2899 Even if your script assumes the standard behavior, you should still
2900 beware usages whose behaviors differ depending on the @acronym{POSIX}
2901 version. For example, avoid @samp{tail - main.c}, since it might be
2902 interpreted as either @samp{tail main.c} or as @samp{tail -- -
2903 main.c}; avoid @samp{tail -c 4}, since it might mean either @samp{tail
2904 -c4} or @samp{tail -c 10 4}; and avoid @samp{tail +4}, since it might
2905 mean either @samp{tail ./+4} or @samp{tail -n +4}.
2910 @node split invocation
2911 @section @command{split}: Split a file into fixed-size pieces
2914 @cindex splitting a file into pieces
2915 @cindex pieces, splitting a file into
2917 @command{split} creates output files containing consecutive sections of
2918 @var{input} (standard input if none is given or @var{input} is
2919 @samp{-}). Synopsis:
2922 split [@var{option}] [@var{input} [@var{prefix}]]
2925 By default, @command{split} puts 1000 lines of @var{input} (or whatever is
2926 left over for the last section), into each output file.
2928 @cindex output file name prefix
2929 The output files' names consist of @var{prefix} (@samp{x} by default)
2930 followed by a group of characters (@samp{aa}, @samp{ab}, @dots{} by
2931 default), such that concatenating the output files in traditional
2932 sorted order by file name produces
2933 the original input file. If the output file names are exhausted,
2934 @command{split} reports an error without deleting the output files
2937 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
2941 @item -l @var{lines}
2942 @itemx --lines=@var{lines}
2945 Put @var{lines} lines of @var{input} into each output file.
2947 For compatibility @command{split} also supports an obsolete
2948 option syntax @option{-@var{lines}}. New scripts should use @option{-l
2949 @var{lines}} instead.
2952 @itemx --bytes=@var{size}
2955 Put @var{size} bytes of @var{input} into each output file.
2956 @multiplierSuffixes{size}
2959 @itemx --line-bytes=@var{size}
2961 @opindex --line-bytes
2962 Put into each output file as many complete lines of @var{input} as
2963 possible without exceeding @var{size} bytes. Individual lines longer than
2964 @var{size} bytes are broken into multiple files.
2965 @var{size} has the same format as for the @option{--bytes} option.
2967 @item -a @var{length}
2968 @itemx --suffix-length=@var{length}
2970 @opindex --suffix-length
2971 Use suffixes of length @var{length}. The default @var{length} is 2.
2974 @itemx --numeric-suffixes
2976 @opindex --numeric-suffixes
2977 Use digits in suffixes rather than lower-case letters.
2981 Write a diagnostic just before each output file is opened.
2988 @node csplit invocation
2989 @section @command{csplit}: Split a file into context-determined pieces
2992 @cindex context splitting
2993 @cindex splitting a file into pieces by context
2995 @command{csplit} creates zero or more output files containing sections of
2996 @var{input} (standard input if @var{input} is @samp{-}). Synopsis:
2999 csplit [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{input} @var{pattern}@dots{}
3002 The contents of the output files are determined by the @var{pattern}
3003 arguments, as detailed below. An error occurs if a @var{pattern}
3004 argument refers to a nonexistent line of the input file (e.g., if no
3005 remaining line matches a given regular expression). After every
3006 @var{pattern} has been matched, any remaining input is copied into one
3009 By default, @command{csplit} prints the number of bytes written to each
3010 output file after it has been created.
3012 The types of pattern arguments are:
3017 Create an output file containing the input up to but not including line
3018 @var{n} (a positive integer). If followed by a repeat count, also
3019 create an output file containing the next @var{n} lines of the input
3020 file once for each repeat.
3022 @item /@var{regexp}/[@var{offset}]
3023 Create an output file containing the current line up to (but not
3024 including) the next line of the input file that contains a match for
3025 @var{regexp}. The optional @var{offset} is an integer.
3026 If it is given, the input up to (but not including) the
3027 matching line plus or minus @var{offset} is put into the output file,
3028 and the line after that begins the next section of input.
3030 @item %@var{regexp}%[@var{offset}]
3031 Like the previous type, except that it does not create an output
3032 file, so that section of the input file is effectively ignored.
3034 @item @{@var{repeat-count}@}
3035 Repeat the previous pattern @var{repeat-count} additional
3036 times. The @var{repeat-count} can either be a positive integer or an
3037 asterisk, meaning repeat as many times as necessary until the input is
3042 The output files' names consist of a prefix (@samp{xx} by default)
3043 followed by a suffix. By default, the suffix is an ascending sequence
3044 of two-digit decimal numbers from @samp{00} to @samp{99}. In any case,
3045 concatenating the output files in sorted order by file name produces the
3046 original input file.
3048 By default, if @command{csplit} encounters an error or receives a hangup,
3049 interrupt, quit, or terminate signal, it removes any output files
3050 that it has created so far before it exits.
3052 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
3056 @item -f @var{prefix}
3057 @itemx --prefix=@var{prefix}
3060 @cindex output file name prefix
3061 Use @var{prefix} as the output file name prefix.
3063 @item -b @var{suffix}
3064 @itemx --suffix=@var{suffix}
3067 @cindex output file name suffix
3068 Use @var{suffix} as the output file name suffix. When this option is
3069 specified, the suffix string must include exactly one
3070 @code{printf(3)}-style conversion specification, possibly including
3071 format specification flags, a field width, a precision specifications,
3072 or all of these kinds of modifiers. The format letter must convert a
3073 binary integer argument to readable form; thus, only @samp{d}, @samp{i},
3074 @samp{u}, @samp{o}, @samp{x}, and @samp{X} conversions are allowed. The
3075 entire @var{suffix} is given (with the current output file number) to
3076 @code{sprintf(3)} to form the file name suffixes for each of the
3077 individual output files in turn. If this option is used, the
3078 @option{--digits} option is ignored.
3080 @item -n @var{digits}
3081 @itemx --digits=@var{digits}
3084 Use output file names containing numbers that are @var{digits} digits
3085 long instead of the default 2.
3090 @opindex --keep-files
3091 Do not remove output files when errors are encountered.
3094 @itemx --elide-empty-files
3096 @opindex --elide-empty-files
3097 Suppress the generation of zero-length output files. (In cases where
3098 the section delimiters of the input file are supposed to mark the first
3099 lines of each of the sections, the first output file will generally be a
3100 zero-length file unless you use this option.) The output file sequence
3101 numbers always run consecutively starting from 0, even when this option
3112 Do not print counts of output file sizes.
3118 Here is an example of its usage.
3119 First, create an empty directory for the exercise,
3126 Now, split the sequence of 1..14 on lines that end with 0 or 5:
3129 $ seq 14 | csplit - '/[05]$/' '@{*@}'
3135 Each number printed above is the size of an output
3136 file that csplit has just created.
3137 List the names of those output files:
3144 Use @command{head} to show their contents:
3169 @node Summarizing files
3170 @chapter Summarizing files
3172 @cindex summarizing files
3174 These commands generate just a few numbers representing entire
3178 * wc invocation:: Print newline, word, and byte counts.
3179 * sum invocation:: Print checksum and block counts.
3180 * cksum invocation:: Print CRC checksum and byte counts.
3181 * md5sum invocation:: Print or check MD5 digests.
3182 * sha1sum invocation:: Print or check SHA-1 digests.
3183 * sha2 utilities:: Print or check SHA-2 digests.
3188 @section @command{wc}: Print newline, word, and byte counts
3192 @cindex character count
3196 @command{wc} counts the number of bytes, characters, whitespace-separated
3197 words, and newlines in each given @var{file}, or standard input if none
3198 are given or for a @var{file} of @samp{-}. Synopsis:
3201 wc [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
3204 @cindex total counts
3205 @command{wc} prints one line of counts for each file, and if the file was
3206 given as an argument, it prints the file name following the counts. If
3207 more than one @var{file} is given, @command{wc} prints a final line
3208 containing the cumulative counts, with the file name @file{total}. The
3209 counts are printed in this order: newlines, words, characters, bytes,
3210 maximum line length.
3211 Each count is printed right-justified in a field with at least one
3212 space between fields so that the numbers and file names normally line
3213 up nicely in columns. The width of the count fields varies depending
3214 on the inputs, so you should not depend on a particular field width.
3215 However, as a @acronym{GNU} extension, if only one count is printed,
3216 it is guaranteed to be printed without leading spaces.
3218 By default, @command{wc} prints three counts: the newline, words, and byte
3219 counts. Options can specify that only certain counts be printed.
3220 Options do not undo others previously given, so
3227 prints both the byte counts and the word counts.
3229 With the @option{--max-line-length} option, @command{wc} prints the length
3230 of the longest line per file, and if there is more than one file it
3231 prints the maximum (not the sum) of those lengths. The line lengths here
3232 are measured in screen columns, according to the current locale and
3233 assuming tab positions in every 8th column.
3235 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
3243 Print only the byte counts.
3249 Print only the character counts.
3255 Print only the word counts.
3261 Print only the newline counts.
3264 @itemx --max-line-length
3266 @opindex --max-line-length
3267 Print only the maximum line lengths.
3269 @macro filesZeroFromOption{cmd,withTotalOption,subListOutput}
3270 @itemx --files0-from=@var{file}
3271 @opindex --files0-from=@var{file}
3272 @c This is commented out to avoid a texi2dvi failure.
3273 @c texi2dvi (GNU Texinfo 4.11) 1.104
3274 @c @cindex including files from @command{\cmd\}
3275 Disallow processing files named on the command line, and instead process
3276 those named in file @var{file}; each name being terminated by a zero byte
3277 (@acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul}).
3278 This is useful \withTotalOption\
3279 when the list of file names is so long that it may exceed a command line
3281 In such cases, running @command{\cmd\} via @command{xargs} is undesirable
3282 because it splits the list into pieces and makes @command{\cmd\} print
3283 \subListOutput\ for each sublist rather than for the entire list.
3284 One way to produce a list of @acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul} terminated file names is with @sc{gnu}
3285 @command{find}, using its @option{-print0} predicate.
3286 If @var{file} is @samp{-} then the @acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul} terminated file names
3287 are read from standard input.
3289 @filesZeroFromOption{wc,,a total}
3291 For example, to find the length of the longest line in any @file{.c} or
3292 @file{.h} file in the current hierarchy, do this:
3295 find . -name '*.[ch]' -print0 |
3296 wc -L --files0-from=- | tail -n1
3304 @node sum invocation
3305 @section @command{sum}: Print checksum and block counts
3308 @cindex 16-bit checksum
3309 @cindex checksum, 16-bit
3311 @command{sum} computes a 16-bit checksum for each given @var{file}, or
3312 standard input if none are given or for a @var{file} of @samp{-}. Synopsis:
3315 sum [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
3318 @command{sum} prints the checksum for each @var{file} followed by the
3319 number of blocks in the file (rounded up). If more than one @var{file}
3320 is given, file names are also printed (by default). (With the
3321 @option{--sysv} option, corresponding file names are printed when there is
3322 at least one file argument.)
3324 By default, @sc{gnu} @command{sum} computes checksums using an algorithm
3325 compatible with BSD @command{sum} and prints file sizes in units of
3328 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
3334 @cindex BSD @command{sum}
3335 Use the default (BSD compatible) algorithm. This option is included for
3336 compatibility with the System V @command{sum}. Unless @option{-s} was also
3337 given, it has no effect.
3343 @cindex System V @command{sum}
3344 Compute checksums using an algorithm compatible with System V
3345 @command{sum}'s default, and print file sizes in units of 512-byte blocks.
3349 @command{sum} is provided for compatibility; the @command{cksum} program (see
3350 next section) is preferable in new applications.
3355 @node cksum invocation
3356 @section @command{cksum}: Print CRC checksum and byte counts
3359 @cindex cyclic redundancy check
3360 @cindex CRC checksum
3362 @command{cksum} computes a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) checksum for each
3363 given @var{file}, or standard input if none are given or for a
3364 @var{file} of @samp{-}. Synopsis:
3367 cksum [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
3370 @command{cksum} prints the CRC checksum for each file along with the number
3371 of bytes in the file, and the file name unless no arguments were given.
3373 @command{cksum} is typically used to ensure that files
3374 transferred by unreliable means (e.g., netnews) have not been corrupted,
3375 by comparing the @command{cksum} output for the received files with the
3376 @command{cksum} output for the original files (typically given in the
3379 The CRC algorithm is specified by the @acronym{POSIX} standard. It is not
3380 compatible with the BSD or System V @command{sum} algorithms (see the
3381 previous section); it is more robust.
3383 The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}. @xref{Common
3389 @node md5sum invocation
3390 @section @command{md5sum}: Print or check MD5 digests
3394 @cindex 128-bit checksum
3395 @cindex checksum, 128-bit
3396 @cindex fingerprint, 128-bit
3397 @cindex message-digest, 128-bit
3399 @command{md5sum} computes a 128-bit checksum (or @dfn{fingerprint} or
3400 @dfn{message-digest}) for each specified @var{file}.
3402 Note: The MD5 digest is more reliable than a simple CRC (provided by
3403 the @command{cksum} command) for detecting accidental file corruption,
3404 as the chances of accidentally having two files with identical MD5
3405 are vanishingly small. However, it should not be considered truly
3406 secure against malicious tampering: although finding a file with a
3407 given MD5 fingerprint, or modifying a file so as to retain its MD5 are
3408 considered infeasible at the moment, it is known how to produce
3409 different files with identical MD5 (a ``collision''), something which
3410 can be a security issue in certain contexts. For more secure hashes,
3411 consider using SHA-1 or SHA-2. @xref{sha1sum invocation}, and
3412 @ref{sha2 utilities}.
3414 If a @var{file} is specified as @samp{-} or if no files are given
3415 @command{md5sum} computes the checksum for the standard input.
3416 @command{md5sum} can also determine whether a file and checksum are
3417 consistent. Synopsis:
3420 md5sum [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
3423 For each @var{file}, @samp{md5sum} outputs the MD5 checksum, a flag
3424 indicating a binary or text input file, and the file name.
3425 If @var{file} contains a backslash or newline, the
3426 line is started with a backslash, and each problematic character in
3427 the file name is escaped with a backslash, making the output
3428 unambiguous even in the presence of arbitrary file names.
3429 If @var{file} is omitted or specified as @samp{-}, standard input is read.
3431 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
3439 @cindex binary input files
3440 Treat each input file as binary, by reading it in binary mode and
3441 outputting a @samp{*} flag. This is the inverse of @option{--text}.
3442 On systems like @acronym{GNU} that do not distinguish between binary
3443 and text files, this option merely flags each input file as binary:
3444 the MD5 checksum is unaffected. This option is the default on systems
3445 like MS-DOS that distinguish between binary and text files, except
3446 for reading standard input when standard input is a terminal.
3450 Read file names and checksum information (not data) from each
3451 @var{file} (or from stdin if no @var{file} was specified) and report
3452 whether the checksums match the contents of the named files.
3453 The input to this mode of @command{md5sum} is usually the output of
3454 a prior, checksum-generating run of @samp{md5sum}.
3455 Each valid line of input consists of an MD5 checksum, a binary/text
3456 flag, and then a file name.
3457 Binary files are marked with @samp{*}, text with @samp{ }.
3458 For each such line, @command{md5sum} reads the named file and computes its
3459 MD5 checksum. Then, if the computed message digest does not match the
3460 one on the line with the file name, the file is noted as having
3461 failed the test. Otherwise, the file passes the test.
3462 By default, for each valid line, one line is written to standard
3463 output indicating whether the named file passed the test.
3464 After all checks have been performed, if there were any failures,
3465 a warning is issued to standard error.
3466 Use the @option{--status} option to inhibit that output.
3467 If any listed file cannot be opened or read, if any valid line has
3468 an MD5 checksum inconsistent with the associated file, or if no valid
3469 line is found, @command{md5sum} exits with nonzero status. Otherwise,
3470 it exits successfully.
3474 @cindex verifying MD5 checksums
3475 This option is useful only when verifying checksums.
3476 When verifying checksums, don't generate an 'OK' message per successfully
3477 checked file. Files that fail the verification are reported in the
3478 default one-line-per-file format. If there is any checksum mismatch,
3479 print a warning summarizing the failures to standard error.
3483 @cindex verifying MD5 checksums
3484 This option is useful only when verifying checksums.
3485 When verifying checksums, don't generate the default one-line-per-file
3486 diagnostic and don't output the warning summarizing any failures.
3487 Failures to open or read a file still evoke individual diagnostics to
3489 If all listed files are readable and are consistent with the associated
3490 MD5 checksums, exit successfully. Otherwise exit with a status code
3491 indicating there was a failure.
3497 @cindex text input files
3498 Treat each input file as text, by reading it in text mode and
3499 outputting a @samp{ } flag. This is the inverse of @option{--binary}.
3500 This option is the default on systems like @acronym{GNU} that do not
3501 distinguish between binary and text files. On other systems, it is
3502 the default for reading standard input when standard input is a
3509 @cindex verifying MD5 checksums
3510 When verifying checksums, warn about improperly formatted MD5 checksum lines.
3511 This option is useful only if all but a few lines in the checked input
3519 @node sha1sum invocation
3520 @section @command{sha1sum}: Print or check SHA-1 digests
3524 @cindex 160-bit checksum
3525 @cindex checksum, 160-bit
3526 @cindex fingerprint, 160-bit
3527 @cindex message-digest, 160-bit
3529 @command{sha1sum} computes a 160-bit checksum for each specified
3530 @var{file}. The usage and options of this command are precisely the
3531 same as for @command{md5sum}. @xref{md5sum invocation}.
3533 Note: The SHA-1 digest is more secure than MD5, and no collisions of
3534 it are known (different files having the same fingerprint). However,
3535 it is known that they can be produced with considerable, but not
3536 unreasonable, resources. For this reason, it is generally considered
3537 that SHA-1 should be gradually phased out in favor of the more secure
3538 SHA-2 hash algorithms. @xref{sha2 utilities}.
3541 @node sha2 utilities
3542 @section sha2 utilities: Print or check SHA-2 digests
3549 @cindex 224-bit checksum
3550 @cindex 256-bit checksum
3551 @cindex 384-bit checksum
3552 @cindex 512-bit checksum
3553 @cindex checksum, 224-bit
3554 @cindex checksum, 256-bit
3555 @cindex checksum, 384-bit
3556 @cindex checksum, 512-bit
3557 @cindex fingerprint, 224-bit
3558 @cindex fingerprint, 256-bit
3559 @cindex fingerprint, 384-bit
3560 @cindex fingerprint, 512-bit
3561 @cindex message-digest, 224-bit
3562 @cindex message-digest, 256-bit
3563 @cindex message-digest, 384-bit
3564 @cindex message-digest, 512-bit
3566 The commands @command{sha224sum}, @command{sha256sum},
3567 @command{sha384sum} and @command{sha512sum} compute checksums of
3568 various lengths (respectively 224, 256, 384 and 512 bits),
3569 collectively known as the SHA-2 hashes. The usage and options of
3570 these commands are precisely the same as for @command{md5sum}.
3571 @xref{md5sum invocation}.
3573 Note: The SHA384 and SHA512 digests are considerably slower to
3574 compute, especially on 32-bit computers, than SHA224 or SHA256.
3577 @node Operating on sorted files
3578 @chapter Operating on sorted files
3580 @cindex operating on sorted files
3581 @cindex sorted files, operations on
3583 These commands work with (or produce) sorted files.
3586 * sort invocation:: Sort text files.
3587 * shuf invocation:: Shuffle text files.
3588 * uniq invocation:: Uniquify files.
3589 * comm invocation:: Compare two sorted files line by line.
3590 * ptx invocation:: Produce a permuted index of file contents.
3591 * tsort invocation:: Topological sort.
3595 @node sort invocation
3596 @section @command{sort}: Sort text files
3599 @cindex sorting files
3601 @command{sort} sorts, merges, or compares all the lines from the given
3602 files, or standard input if none are given or for a @var{file} of
3603 @samp{-}. By default, @command{sort} writes the results to standard
3607 sort [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
3610 @command{sort} has three modes of operation: sort (the default), merge,
3611 and check for sortedness. The following options change the operation
3618 @itemx --check=diagnose-first
3621 @cindex checking for sortedness
3622 Check whether the given file is already sorted: if it is not all
3623 sorted, print a diagnostic containing the first out-of-order line and
3624 exit with a status of 1.
3625 Otherwise, exit successfully.
3626 At most one input file can be given.
3629 @itemx --check=quiet
3630 @itemx --check=silent
3633 @cindex checking for sortedness
3634 Exit successfully if the given file is already sorted, and
3635 exit with status 1 otherwise.
3636 At most one input file can be given.
3637 This is like @option{-c}, except it does not print a diagnostic.
3643 @cindex merging sorted files
3644 Merge the given files by sorting them as a group. Each input file must
3645 always be individually sorted. It always works to sort instead of
3646 merge; merging is provided because it is faster, in the case where it
3651 @cindex sort stability
3652 @cindex sort's last-resort comparison
3653 A pair of lines is compared as follows:
3654 @command{sort} compares each pair of fields, in the
3655 order specified on the command line, according to the associated
3656 ordering options, until a difference is found or no fields are left.
3657 If no key fields are specified, @command{sort} uses a default key of
3658 the entire line. Finally, as a last resort when all keys compare
3659 equal, @command{sort} compares entire lines as if no ordering options
3660 other than @option{--reverse} (@option{-r}) were specified. The
3661 @option{--stable} (@option{-s}) option disables this @dfn{last-resort
3662 comparison} so that lines in which all fields compare equal are left
3663 in their original relative order. The @option{--unique}
3664 (@option{-u}) option also disables the last-resort comparison.
3668 Unless otherwise specified, all comparisons use the character collating
3669 sequence specified by the @env{LC_COLLATE} locale.@footnote{If you
3670 use a non-@acronym{POSIX} locale (e.g., by setting @env{LC_ALL}
3671 to @samp{en_US}), then @command{sort} may produce output that is sorted
3672 differently than you're accustomed to. In that case, set the @env{LC_ALL}
3673 environment variable to @samp{C}. Note that setting only @env{LC_COLLATE}
3674 has two problems. First, it is ineffective if @env{LC_ALL} is also set.
3675 Second, it has undefined behavior if @env{LC_CTYPE} (or @env{LANG}, if
3676 @env{LC_CTYPE} is unset) is set to an incompatible value. For example,
3677 you get undefined behavior if @env{LC_CTYPE} is @code{ja_JP.PCK} but
3678 @env{LC_COLLATE} is @code{en_US.UTF-8}.}
3680 @sc{gnu} @command{sort} (as specified for all @sc{gnu} utilities) has no
3681 limit on input line length or restrictions on bytes allowed within lines.
3682 In addition, if the final byte of an input file is not a newline, @sc{gnu}
3683 @command{sort} silently supplies one. A line's trailing newline is not
3684 part of the line for comparison purposes.
3686 @cindex exit status of @command{sort}
3690 0 if no error occurred
3691 1 if invoked with @option{-c} or @option{-C} and the input is not sorted
3692 2 if an error occurred
3696 If the environment variable @env{TMPDIR} is set, @command{sort} uses its
3697 value as the directory for temporary files instead of @file{/tmp}. The
3698 @option{--temporary-directory} (@option{-T}) option in turn overrides
3699 the environment variable.
3701 The following options affect the ordering of output lines. They may be
3702 specified globally or as part of a specific key field. If no key
3703 fields are specified, global options apply to comparison of entire
3704 lines; otherwise the global options are inherited by key fields that do
3705 not specify any special options of their own. In pre-@acronym{POSIX}
3706 versions of @command{sort}, global options affect only later key fields,
3707 so portable shell scripts should specify global options first.
3712 @itemx --ignore-leading-blanks
3714 @opindex --ignore-leading-blanks
3715 @cindex blanks, ignoring leading
3717 Ignore leading blanks when finding sort keys in each line.
3718 By default a blank is a space or a tab, but the @env{LC_CTYPE} locale
3719 can change this. Note blanks may be ignored by your locale's collating
3720 rules, but without this option they will be significant for character
3721 positions specified in keys with the @option{-k} option.
3724 @itemx --dictionary-order
3726 @opindex --dictionary-order
3727 @cindex dictionary order
3728 @cindex phone directory order
3729 @cindex telephone directory order
3731 Sort in @dfn{phone directory} order: ignore all characters except
3732 letters, digits and blanks when sorting.
3733 By default letters and digits are those of @acronym{ASCII} and a blank
3734 is a space or a tab, but the @env{LC_CTYPE} locale can change this.
3737 @itemx --ignore-case
3739 @opindex --ignore-case
3740 @cindex ignoring case
3741 @cindex case folding
3743 Fold lowercase characters into the equivalent uppercase characters when
3744 comparing so that, for example, @samp{b} and @samp{B} sort as equal.
3745 The @env{LC_CTYPE} locale determines character types.
3746 When used with @option{--unique} those lower case equivalent lines are
3747 thrown away. (There is currently no way to throw away the upper case
3748 equivalent instead. (Any @option{--reverse} given would only affect
3749 the final result, after the throwing away.))
3752 @itemx --general-numeric-sort
3753 @itemx --sort=general-numeric
3755 @opindex --general-numeric-sort
3757 @cindex general numeric sort
3759 Sort numerically, using the standard C function @code{strtod} to convert
3760 a prefix of each line to a double-precision floating point number.
3761 This allows floating point numbers to be specified in scientific notation,
3762 like @code{1.0e-34} and @code{10e100}.
3763 The @env{LC_NUMERIC} locale determines the decimal-point character.
3764 Do not report overflow, underflow, or conversion errors.
3765 Use the following collating sequence:
3769 Lines that do not start with numbers (all considered to be equal).
3771 NaNs (``Not a Number'' values, in IEEE floating point arithmetic)
3772 in a consistent but machine-dependent order.
3776 Finite numbers in ascending numeric order (with @math{-0} and @math{+0} equal).
3781 Use this option only if there is no alternative; it is much slower than
3782 @option{--numeric-sort} (@option{-n}) and it can lose information when
3783 converting to floating point.
3786 @itemx --human-numeric-sort
3787 @itemx --sort=human-numeric
3789 @opindex --human-numeric-sort
3791 @cindex human numeric sort
3793 Sort numerically, as per the @option{--numeric-sort} option below, and in
3794 addition handle IEC or SI suffixes like MiB, MB etc (@ref{Block size}).
3795 Note a mixture of IEC and SI suffixes is not supported and will
3796 be flagged as an error. Also the numbers must be abbreviated uniformly.
3797 I.E. values with different precisions like 6000K and 5M will be sorted
3801 @itemx --ignore-nonprinting
3803 @opindex --ignore-nonprinting
3804 @cindex nonprinting characters, ignoring
3805 @cindex unprintable characters, ignoring
3807 Ignore nonprinting characters.
3808 The @env{LC_CTYPE} locale determines character types.
3809 This option has no effect if the stronger @option{--dictionary-order}
3810 (@option{-d}) option is also given.
3816 @opindex --month-sort
3818 @cindex months, sorting by
3820 An initial string, consisting of any amount of blanks, followed
3821 by a month name abbreviation, is folded to UPPER case and
3822 compared in the order @samp{JAN} < @samp{FEB} < @dots{} < @samp{DEC}.
3823 Invalid names compare low to valid names. The @env{LC_TIME} locale
3824 category determines the month spellings.
3825 By default a blank is a space or a tab, but the @env{LC_CTYPE} locale
3829 @itemx --numeric-sort
3830 @itemx --sort=numeric
3832 @opindex --numeric-sort
3834 @cindex numeric sort
3836 Sort numerically. The number begins each line and consists
3837 of optional blanks, an optional @samp{-} sign, and zero or more
3838 digits possibly separated by thousands separators, optionally followed
3839 by a decimal-point character and zero or more digits. An empty
3840 number is treated as @samp{0}. The @env{LC_NUMERIC}
3841 locale specifies the decimal-point character and thousands separator.
3842 By default a blank is a space or a tab, but the @env{LC_CTYPE} locale
3845 Comparison is exact; there is no rounding error.
3847 Neither a leading @samp{+} nor exponential notation is recognized.
3848 To compare such strings numerically, use the
3849 @option{--general-numeric-sort} (@option{-g}) option.
3852 @itemx --version-sort
3854 @opindex --version-sort
3855 @cindex version number sort
3857 Sort per @code{strverscmp(3)}. This is a normal string comparison, except
3858 that embedded decimal numbers are sorted by numeric value
3859 (see @option{--numeric-sort} above).
3865 @cindex reverse sorting
3866 Reverse the result of comparison, so that lines with greater key values
3867 appear earlier in the output instead of later.
3870 @itemx --random-sort
3871 @itemx --sort=random
3873 @opindex --random-sort
3876 Sort by hashing the input keys and then sorting the hash values.
3877 Choose the hash function at random, ensuring that it is free of
3878 collisions so that differing keys have differing hash values. This is
3879 like a random permutation of the inputs (@pxref{shuf invocation}),
3880 except that keys with the same value sort together.
3882 If multiple random sort fields are specified, the same random hash
3883 function is used for all fields. To use different random hash
3884 functions for different fields, you can invoke @command{sort} more
3887 The choice of hash function is affected by the
3888 @option{--random-source} option.
3896 @item --compress-program=@var{prog}
3897 Compress any temporary files with the program @var{prog}.
3899 With no arguments, @var{prog} must compress standard input to standard
3900 output, and when given the @option{-d} option it must decompress
3901 standard input to standard output.
3903 Terminate with an error if @var{prog} exits with nonzero status.
3905 White space and the backslash character should not appear in
3906 @var{prog}; they are reserved for future use.
3908 @filesZeroFromOption{sort,,sorted output}
3910 @item -k @var{pos1}[,@var{pos2}]
3911 @itemx --key=@var{pos1}[,@var{pos2}]
3915 Specify a sort field that consists of the part of the line between
3916 @var{pos1} and @var{pos2} (or the end of the line, if @var{pos2} is
3917 omitted), @emph{inclusive}.
3919 Each @var{pos} has the form @samp{@var{f}[.@var{c}][@var{opts}]},
3920 where @var{f} is the number of the field to use, and @var{c} is the number
3921 of the first character from the beginning of the field. Fields and character
3922 positions are numbered starting with 1; a character position of zero in
3923 @var{pos2} indicates the field's last character. If @samp{.@var{c}} is
3924 omitted from @var{pos1}, it defaults to 1 (the beginning of the field);
3925 if omitted from @var{pos2}, it defaults to 0 (the end of the field).
3926 @var{opts} are ordering options, allowing individual keys to be sorted
3927 according to different rules; see below for details. Keys can span
3930 Example: To sort on the second field, use @option{--key=2,2}
3931 (@option{-k 2,2}). See below for more notes on keys and more examples.
3933 @item --batch-size=@var{nmerge}
3934 @opindex --batch-size
3935 @cindex number of inputs to merge, nmerge
3936 Merge at most @var{nmerge} inputs at once.
3938 When @command{sort} has to merge more than @var{nmerge} inputs,
3939 it merges them in groups of @var{nmerge}, saving the result in
3940 a temporary file, which is then used as an input in a subsequent merge.
3942 A large value of @var{nmerge} may improve merge performance and decrease
3943 temporary storage utilization at the expense of increased memory usage
3944 and I/0. Conversely a small value of @var{nmerge} may reduce memory
3945 requirements and I/0 at the expense of temporary storage consumption and
3948 The value of @var{nmerge} must be at least 2. The default value is
3949 currently 16, but this is implementation-dependent and may change in
3952 The value of @var{nmerge} may be bounded by a resource limit for open
3953 file descriptors. The commands @samp{ulimit -n} or @samp{getconf
3954 OPEN_MAX} may display limits for your systems; these limits may be
3955 modified further if your program already has some files open, or if
3956 the operating system has other limits on the number of open files. If
3957 the value of @var{nmerge} exceeds the resource limit, @command{sort}
3958 silently uses a smaller value.
3960 @item -o @var{output-file}
3961 @itemx --output=@var{output-file}
3964 @cindex overwriting of input, allowed
3965 Write output to @var{output-file} instead of standard output.
3966 Normally, @command{sort} reads all input before opening
3967 @var{output-file}, so you can safely sort a file in place by using
3968 commands like @code{sort -o F F} and @code{cat F | sort -o F}.
3969 However, @command{sort} with @option{--merge} (@option{-m}) can open
3970 the output file before reading all input, so a command like @code{cat
3971 F | sort -m -o F - G} is not safe as @command{sort} might start
3972 writing @file{F} before @command{cat} is done reading it.
3974 @vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
3975 On newer systems, @option{-o} cannot appear after an input file if
3976 @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} is set, e.g., @samp{sort F -o F}. Portable
3977 scripts should specify @option{-o @var{output-file}} before any input
3980 @item --random-source=@var{file}
3981 @opindex --random-source
3982 @cindex random source for sorting
3983 Use @var{file} as a source of random data used to determine which
3984 random hash function to use with the @option{-R} option. @xref{Random
3991 @cindex sort stability
3992 @cindex sort's last-resort comparison
3994 Make @command{sort} stable by disabling its last-resort comparison.
3995 This option has no effect if no fields or global ordering options
3996 other than @option{--reverse} (@option{-r}) are specified.
3999 @itemx --buffer-size=@var{size}
4001 @opindex --buffer-size
4002 @cindex size for main memory sorting
4003 Use a main-memory sort buffer of the given @var{size}. By default,
4004 @var{size} is in units of 1024 bytes. Appending @samp{%} causes
4005 @var{size} to be interpreted as a percentage of physical memory.
4006 Appending @samp{K} multiplies @var{size} by 1024 (the default),
4007 @samp{M} by 1,048,576, @samp{G} by 1,073,741,824, and so on for
4008 @samp{T}, @samp{P}, @samp{E}, @samp{Z}, and @samp{Y}. Appending
4009 @samp{b} causes @var{size} to be interpreted as a byte count, with no
4012 This option can improve the performance of @command{sort} by causing it
4013 to start with a larger or smaller sort buffer than the default.
4014 However, this option affects only the initial buffer size. The buffer
4015 grows beyond @var{size} if @command{sort} encounters input lines larger
4018 @item -t @var{separator}
4019 @itemx --field-separator=@var{separator}
4021 @opindex --field-separator
4022 @cindex field separator character
4023 Use character @var{separator} as the field separator when finding the
4024 sort keys in each line. By default, fields are separated by the empty
4025 string between a non-blank character and a blank character.
4026 By default a blank is a space or a tab, but the @env{LC_CTYPE} locale
4029 That is, given the input line @w{@samp{ foo bar}}, @command{sort} breaks it
4030 into fields @w{@samp{ foo}} and @w{@samp{ bar}}. The field separator is
4031 not considered to be part of either the field preceding or the field
4032 following, so with @samp{sort @w{-t " "}} the same input line has
4033 three fields: an empty field, @samp{foo}, and @samp{bar}.
4034 However, fields that extend to the end of the line,
4035 as @option{-k 2}, or fields consisting of a range, as @option{-k 2,3},
4036 retain the field separators present between the endpoints of the range.
4038 To specify @acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul} as the field separator,
4039 use the two-character string @samp{\0}, e.g., @samp{sort -t '\0'}.
4041 @item -T @var{tempdir}
4042 @itemx --temporary-directory=@var{tempdir}
4044 @opindex --temporary-directory
4045 @cindex temporary directory
4047 Use directory @var{tempdir} to store temporary files, overriding the
4048 @env{TMPDIR} environment variable. If this option is given more than
4049 once, temporary files are stored in all the directories given. If you
4050 have a large sort or merge that is I/O-bound, you can often improve
4051 performance by using this option to specify directories on different
4052 disks and controllers.
4058 @cindex uniquifying output
4060 Normally, output only the first of a sequence of lines that compare
4061 equal. For the @option{--check} (@option{-c} or @option{-C}) option,
4062 check that no pair of consecutive lines compares equal.
4064 This option also disables the default last-resort comparison.
4066 The commands @code{sort -u} and @code{sort | uniq} are equivalent, but
4067 this equivalence does not extend to arbitrary @command{sort} options.
4068 For example, @code{sort -n -u} inspects only the value of the initial
4069 numeric string when checking for uniqueness, whereas @code{sort -n |
4070 uniq} inspects the entire line. @xref{uniq invocation}.
4072 @macro zeroTerminatedOption
4074 @itemx --zero-terminated
4076 @opindex --zero-terminated
4077 @cindex process zero-terminated items
4078 Delimit items with a zero byte rather than a newline (@acronym{ASCII} @sc{lf}).
4079 I.E. treat input as items separated by @acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul}
4080 and terminate output items with @acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul}.
4081 This option can be useful in conjunction with @samp{perl -0} or
4082 @samp{find -print0} and @samp{xargs -0} which do the same in order to
4083 reliably handle arbitrary file names (even those containing blanks
4084 or other special characters).
4086 @zeroTerminatedOption
4090 Historical (BSD and System V) implementations of @command{sort} have
4091 differed in their interpretation of some options, particularly
4092 @option{-b}, @option{-f}, and @option{-n}. @sc{gnu} sort follows the @acronym{POSIX}
4093 behavior, which is usually (but not always!) like the System V behavior.
4094 According to @acronym{POSIX}, @option{-n} no longer implies @option{-b}. For
4095 consistency, @option{-M} has been changed in the same way. This may
4096 affect the meaning of character positions in field specifications in
4097 obscure cases. The only fix is to add an explicit @option{-b}.
4099 A position in a sort field specified with @option{-k} may have any
4100 of the option letters @samp{MbdfghinRrV} appended to it, in which case no
4101 global ordering options are inherited by that particular field. The
4102 @option{-b} option may be independently attached to either or both of
4103 the start and end positions of a field specification, and if it is
4104 inherited from the global options it will be attached to both.
4105 If input lines can contain leading or adjacent blanks and @option{-t}
4106 is not used, then @option{-k} is typically combined with @option{-b} or
4107 an option that implicitly ignores leading blanks (@samp{MghnV}) as otherwise
4108 the varying numbers of leading blanks in fields can cause confusing results.
4110 If the start position in a sort field specifier falls after the end of
4111 the line or after the end field, the field is empty. If the @option{-b}
4112 option was specified, the @samp{.@var{c}} part of a field specification
4113 is counted from the first nonblank character of the field.
4115 @vindex _POSIX2_VERSION
4116 @vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
4117 On older systems, @command{sort} supports an obsolete origin-zero
4118 syntax @samp{+@var{pos1} [-@var{pos2}]} for specifying sort keys.
4119 This obsolete behavior can be enabled or disabled with the
4120 @env{_POSIX2_VERSION} environment variable (@pxref{Standards
4121 conformance}); it can also be enabled when @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} is
4122 not set by using the obsolete syntax with @samp{-@var{pos2}} present.
4124 Scripts intended for use on standard hosts should avoid obsolete
4125 syntax and should use @option{-k} instead. For example, avoid
4126 @samp{sort +2}, since it might be interpreted as either @samp{sort
4127 ./+2} or @samp{sort -k 3}. If your script must also run on hosts that
4128 support only the obsolete syntax, it can use a test like @samp{if sort
4129 -k 1 </dev/null >/dev/null 2>&1; then @dots{}} to decide which syntax
4132 Here are some examples to illustrate various combinations of options.
4137 Sort in descending (reverse) numeric order.
4144 Sort alphabetically, omitting the first and second fields
4145 and the blanks at the start of the third field.
4146 This uses a single key composed of the characters beginning
4147 at the start of the first nonblank character in field three
4148 and extending to the end of each line.
4155 Sort numerically on the second field and resolve ties by sorting
4156 alphabetically on the third and fourth characters of field five.
4157 Use @samp{:} as the field delimiter.
4160 sort -t : -k 2,2n -k 5.3,5.4
4163 Note that if you had written @option{-k 2n} instead of @option{-k 2,2n}
4164 @command{sort} would have used all characters beginning in the second field
4165 and extending to the end of the line as the primary @emph{numeric}
4166 key. For the large majority of applications, treating keys spanning
4167 more than one field as numeric will not do what you expect.
4169 Also note that the @samp{n} modifier was applied to the field-end
4170 specifier for the first key. It would have been equivalent to
4171 specify @option{-k 2n,2} or @option{-k 2n,2n}. All modifiers except
4172 @samp{b} apply to the associated @emph{field}, regardless of whether
4173 the modifier character is attached to the field-start and/or the
4174 field-end part of the key specifier.
4177 Sort the password file on the fifth field and ignore any
4178 leading blanks. Sort lines with equal values in field five
4179 on the numeric user ID in field three. Fields are separated
4183 sort -t : -k 5b,5 -k 3,3n /etc/passwd
4184 sort -t : -n -k 5b,5 -k 3,3 /etc/passwd
4185 sort -t : -b -k 5,5 -k 3,3n /etc/passwd
4188 These three commands have equivalent effect. The first specifies that
4189 the first key's start position ignores leading blanks and the second
4190 key is sorted numerically. The other two commands rely on global
4191 options being inherited by sort keys that lack modifiers. The inheritance
4192 works in this case because @option{-k 5b,5b} and @option{-k 5b,5} are
4193 equivalent, as the location of a field-end lacking a @samp{.@var{c}}
4194 character position is not affected by whether initial blanks are
4198 Sort a set of log files, primarily by IPv4 address and secondarily by
4199 time stamp. If two lines' primary and secondary keys are identical,
4200 output the lines in the same order that they were input. The log
4201 files contain lines that look like this:
4204 4.150.156.3 - - [01/Apr/2004:06:31:51 +0000] message 1
4205 211.24.3.231 - - [24/Apr/2004:20:17:39 +0000] message 2
4208 Fields are separated by exactly one space. Sort IPv4 addresses
4209 lexicographically, e.g., 212.61.52.2 sorts before 212.129.233.201
4210 because 61 is less than 129.
4213 sort -s -t ' ' -k 4.9n -k 4.5M -k 4.2n -k 4.14,4.21 file*.log |
4214 sort -s -t '.' -k 1,1n -k 2,2n -k 3,3n -k 4,4n
4217 This example cannot be done with a single @command{sort} invocation,
4218 since IPv4 address components are separated by @samp{.} while dates
4219 come just after a space. So it is broken down into two invocations of
4220 @command{sort}: the first sorts by time stamp and the second by IPv4
4221 address. The time stamp is sorted by year, then month, then day, and
4222 finally by hour-minute-second field, using @option{-k} to isolate each
4223 field. Except for hour-minute-second there's no need to specify the
4224 end of each key field, since the @samp{n} and @samp{M} modifiers sort
4225 based on leading prefixes that cannot cross field boundaries. The
4226 IPv4 addresses are sorted lexicographically. The second sort uses
4227 @samp{-s} so that ties in the primary key are broken by the secondary
4228 key; the first sort uses @samp{-s} so that the combination of the two
4232 Generate a tags file in case-insensitive sorted order.
4235 find src -type f -print0 | sort -z -f | xargs -0 etags --append
4238 The use of @option{-print0}, @option{-z}, and @option{-0} in this case means
4239 that file names that contain blanks or other special characters are
4241 by the sort operation.
4243 @c This example is a bit contrived and needs more explanation.
4245 @c Sort records separated by an arbitrary string by using a pipe to convert
4246 @c each record delimiter string to @samp{\0}, then using sort's -z option,
4247 @c and converting each @samp{\0} back to the original record delimiter.
4250 @c printf 'c\n\nb\n\na\n'|perl -0pe 's/\n\n/\n\0/g'|sort -z|perl -0pe 's/\0/\n/g'
4254 Use the common @acronym{DSU, Decorate Sort Undecorate} idiom to
4255 sort lines according to their length.
4258 awk '@{print length, $0@}' /etc/passwd | sort -n | cut -f2- -d' '
4261 In general this technique can be used to sort data that the @command{sort}
4262 command does not support, or is inefficient at, sorting directly.
4265 Shuffle a list of directories, but preserve the order of files within
4266 each directory. For instance, one could use this to generate a music
4267 playlist in which albums are shuffled but the songs of each album are
4271 ls */* | sort -t / -k 1,1R -k 2,2
4277 @node shuf invocation
4278 @section @command{shuf}: Shuffling text
4281 @cindex shuffling files
4283 @command{shuf} shuffles its input by outputting a random permutation
4284 of its input lines. Each output permutation is equally likely.
4288 shuf [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]
4289 shuf -e [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{arg}]@dots{}
4290 shuf -i @var{lo}-@var{hi} [@var{option}]@dots{}
4293 @command{shuf} has three modes of operation that affect where it
4294 obtains its input lines. By default, it reads lines from standard
4295 input. The following options change the operation mode:
4303 @cindex command-line operands to shuffle
4304 Treat each command-line operand as an input line.
4306 @item -i @var{lo}-@var{hi}
4307 @itemx --input-range=@var{lo}-@var{hi}
4309 @opindex --input-range
4310 @cindex input range to shuffle
4311 Act as if input came from a file containing the range of unsigned
4312 decimal integers @var{lo}@dots{}@var{hi}, one per line.
4316 @command{shuf}'s other options can affect its behavior in all
4321 @item -n @var{lines}
4322 @itemx --head-count=@var{count}
4324 @opindex --head-count
4325 @cindex head of output
4326 Output at most @var{count} lines. By default, all input lines are
4329 @item -o @var{output-file}
4330 @itemx --output=@var{output-file}
4333 @cindex overwriting of input, allowed
4334 Write output to @var{output-file} instead of standard output.
4335 @command{shuf} reads all input before opening
4336 @var{output-file}, so you can safely shuffle a file in place by using
4337 commands like @code{shuf -o F <F} and @code{cat F | shuf -o F}.
4339 @item --random-source=@var{file}
4340 @opindex --random-source
4341 @cindex random source for shuffling
4342 Use @var{file} as a source of random data used to determine which
4343 permutation to generate. @xref{Random sources}.
4345 @zeroTerminatedOption
4361 might produce the output
4371 Similarly, the command:
4374 shuf -e clubs hearts diamonds spades
4388 and the command @samp{shuf -i 1-4} might output:
4398 These examples all have four input lines, so @command{shuf} might
4399 produce any of the twenty-four possible permutations of the input. In
4400 general, if there are @var{n} input lines, there are @var{n}! (i.e.,
4401 @var{n} factorial, or @var{n} * (@var{n} - 1) * @dots{} * 1) possible
4402 output permutations.
4407 @node uniq invocation
4408 @section @command{uniq}: Uniquify files
4411 @cindex uniquify files
4413 @command{uniq} writes the unique lines in the given @file{input}, or
4414 standard input if nothing is given or for an @var{input} name of
4418 uniq [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{input} [@var{output}]]
4421 By default, @command{uniq} prints its input lines, except that
4422 it discards all but the first of adjacent repeated lines, so that
4423 no output lines are repeated. Optionally, it can instead discard
4424 lines that are not repeated, or all repeated lines.
4426 The input need not be sorted, but repeated input lines are detected
4427 only if they are adjacent. If you want to discard non-adjacent
4428 duplicate lines, perhaps you want to use @code{sort -u}.
4429 @xref{sort invocation}.
4432 Comparisons honor the rules specified by the @env{LC_COLLATE}
4435 If no @var{output} file is specified, @command{uniq} writes to standard
4438 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
4443 @itemx --skip-fields=@var{n}
4445 @opindex --skip-fields
4446 Skip @var{n} fields on each line before checking for uniqueness. Use
4447 a null string for comparison if a line has fewer than @var{n} fields. Fields
4448 are sequences of non-space non-tab characters that are separated from
4449 each other by at least one space or tab.
4451 For compatibility @command{uniq} supports an obsolete option syntax
4452 @option{-@var{n}}. New scripts should use @option{-f @var{n}} instead.
4455 @itemx --skip-chars=@var{n}
4457 @opindex --skip-chars
4458 Skip @var{n} characters before checking for uniqueness. Use a null string
4459 for comparison if a line has fewer than @var{n} characters. If you use both
4460 the field and character skipping options, fields are skipped over first.
4462 @vindex _POSIX2_VERSION
4463 On older systems, @command{uniq} supports an obsolete option syntax
4465 This obsolete behavior can be enabled or disabled with the
4466 @env{_POSIX2_VERSION} environment variable (@pxref{Standards
4467 conformance}), but portable scripts should avoid commands whose
4468 behavior depends on this variable.
4469 For example, use @samp{uniq ./+10} or @samp{uniq -s 10} rather than
4470 the ambiguous @samp{uniq +10}.
4476 Print the number of times each line occurred along with the line.
4479 @itemx --ignore-case
4481 @opindex --ignore-case
4482 Ignore differences in case when comparing lines.
4488 @cindex repeated lines, outputting
4489 Discard lines that are not repeated. When used by itself, this option
4490 causes @command{uniq} to print the first copy of each repeated line,
4494 @itemx --all-repeated[=@var{delimit-method}]
4496 @opindex --all-repeated
4497 @cindex all repeated lines, outputting
4498 Do not discard the second and subsequent repeated input lines,
4499 but discard lines that are not repeated.
4500 This option is useful mainly in conjunction with other options e.g.,
4501 to ignore case or to compare only selected fields.
4502 The optional @var{delimit-method} tells how to delimit
4503 groups of repeated lines, and must be one of the following:
4508 Do not delimit groups of repeated lines.
4509 This is equivalent to @option{--all-repeated} (@option{-D}).
4512 Output a newline before each group of repeated lines.
4513 With @option{--zero-terminated} (@option{-z}), use a zero
4514 byte (@acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul}) instead of a newline.
4517 Separate groups of repeated lines with a single newline.
4518 With @option{--zero-terminated} (@option{-z}), use a zero
4519 byte (@acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul}) instead of a newline.
4520 This is the same as using @samp{prepend}, except that
4521 no delimiter is inserted before the first group, and hence
4522 may be better suited for output direct to users.
4525 Note that when groups are delimited and the input stream contains
4526 two or more consecutive blank lines, then the output is ambiguous.
4527 To avoid that, filter the input through @samp{tr -s '\n'} to replace
4528 each sequence of consecutive newlines with a single newline.
4530 This is a @sc{gnu} extension.
4531 @c FIXME: give an example showing *how* it's useful
4537 @cindex unique lines, outputting
4538 Discard the first repeated line. When used by itself, this option
4539 causes @command{uniq} to print unique lines, and nothing else.
4542 @itemx --check-chars=@var{n}
4544 @opindex --check-chars
4545 Compare at most @var{n} characters on each line (after skipping any specified
4546 fields and characters). By default the entire rest of the lines are
4549 @zeroTerminatedOption
4556 @node comm invocation
4557 @section @command{comm}: Compare two sorted files line by line
4560 @cindex line-by-line comparison
4561 @cindex comparing sorted files
4563 @command{comm} writes to standard output lines that are common, and lines
4564 that are unique, to two input files; a file name of @samp{-} means
4565 standard input. Synopsis:
4568 comm [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{file1} @var{file2}
4572 Before @command{comm} can be used, the input files must be sorted using the
4573 collating sequence specified by the @env{LC_COLLATE} locale.
4574 If an input file ends in a non-newline
4575 character, a newline is silently appended. The @command{sort} command with
4576 no options always outputs a file that is suitable input to @command{comm}.
4578 @cindex differing lines
4579 @cindex common lines
4580 With no options, @command{comm} produces three-column output. Column one
4581 contains lines unique to @var{file1}, column two contains lines unique
4582 to @var{file2}, and column three contains lines common to both files.
4583 Columns are separated by a single TAB character.
4584 @c FIXME: when there's an option to supply an alternative separator
4585 @c string, append `by default' to the above sentence.
4590 The options @option{-1}, @option{-2}, and @option{-3} suppress printing of
4591 the corresponding columns (and separators). Also see @ref{Common options}.
4593 Unlike some other comparison utilities, @command{comm} has an exit
4594 status that does not depend on the result of the comparison.
4595 Upon normal completion @command{comm} produces an exit code of zero.
4596 If there is an error it exits with nonzero status.
4598 @macro checkOrderOption{cmd}
4599 If the @option{--check-order} option is given, unsorted inputs will
4600 cause a fatal error message. If the option @option{--nocheck-order}
4601 is given, unsorted inputs will never cause an error message. If
4602 neither of these options is given, wrongly sorted inputs are diagnosed
4603 only if an input file is found to contain unpairable lines. If an
4604 input file is diagnosed as being unsorted, the @command{\cmd\} command
4605 will exit with a nonzero status (and the output should not be used).
4607 Forcing @command{\cmd\} to process wrongly sorted input files
4608 containing unpairable lines by specifying @option{--nocheck-order} is
4609 not guaranteed to produce any particular output. The output will
4610 probably not correspond with whatever you hoped it would be.
4612 @checkOrderOption{comm}
4617 Fail with an error message if either input file is wrongly ordered.
4619 @item --nocheck-order
4620 Do not check that both input files are in sorted order.
4624 @item --output-delimiter=@var{str}
4625 Print @var{str} between adjacent output columns,
4626 rather than the default of a single TAB character.
4628 The delimiter @var{str} may not be empty.
4632 @node ptx invocation
4633 @section @command{ptx}: Produce permuted indexes
4637 @command{ptx} reads a text file and essentially produces a permuted index, with
4638 each keyword in its context. The calling sketch is either one of:
4641 ptx [@var{option} @dots{}] [@var{file} @dots{}]
4642 ptx -G [@var{option} @dots{}] [@var{input} [@var{output}]]
4645 The @option{-G} (or its equivalent: @option{--traditional}) option disables
4646 all @sc{gnu} extensions and reverts to traditional mode, thus introducing some
4647 limitations and changing several of the program's default option values.
4648 When @option{-G} is not specified, @sc{gnu} extensions are always enabled.
4649 @sc{gnu} extensions to @command{ptx} are documented wherever appropriate in this
4650 document. For the full list, see @xref{Compatibility in ptx}.
4652 Individual options are explained in the following sections.
4654 When @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled, there may be zero, one or several
4655 @var{file}s after the options. If there is no @var{file}, the program
4656 reads the standard input. If there is one or several @var{file}s, they
4657 give the name of input files which are all read in turn, as if all the
4658 input files were concatenated. However, there is a full contextual
4659 break between each file and, when automatic referencing is requested,
4660 file names and line numbers refer to individual text input files. In
4661 all cases, the program outputs the permuted index to the standard
4664 When @sc{gnu} extensions are @emph{not} enabled, that is, when the program
4665 operates in traditional mode, there may be zero, one or two parameters
4666 besides the options. If there are no parameters, the program reads the
4667 standard input and outputs the permuted index to the standard output.
4668 If there is only one parameter, it names the text @var{input} to be read
4669 instead of the standard input. If two parameters are given, they give
4670 respectively the name of the @var{input} file to read and the name of
4671 the @var{output} file to produce. @emph{Be very careful} to note that,
4672 in this case, the contents of file given by the second parameter is
4673 destroyed. This behavior is dictated by System V @command{ptx}
4674 compatibility; @sc{gnu} Standards normally discourage output parameters not
4675 introduced by an option.
4677 Note that for @emph{any} file named as the value of an option or as an
4678 input text file, a single dash @kbd{-} may be used, in which case
4679 standard input is assumed. However, it would not make sense to use this
4680 convention more than once per program invocation.
4683 * General options in ptx:: Options which affect general program behavior.
4684 * Charset selection in ptx:: Underlying character set considerations.
4685 * Input processing in ptx:: Input fields, contexts, and keyword selection.
4686 * Output formatting in ptx:: Types of output format, and sizing the fields.
4687 * Compatibility in ptx::
4691 @node General options in ptx
4692 @subsection General options
4697 @itemx --traditional
4698 As already explained, this option disables all @sc{gnu} extensions to
4699 @command{ptx} and switches to traditional mode.
4702 Print a short help on standard output, then exit without further
4706 Print the program version on standard output, then exit without further
4714 @node Charset selection in ptx
4715 @subsection Charset selection
4717 @c FIXME: People don't necessarily know what an IBM-PC was these days.
4718 As it is set up now, the program assumes that the input file is coded
4719 using 8-bit @acronym{ISO} 8859-1 code, also known as Latin-1 character set,
4720 @emph{unless} it is compiled for MS-DOS, in which case it uses the
4721 character set of the IBM-PC@. (@sc{gnu} @command{ptx} is not known to work on
4722 smaller MS-DOS machines anymore.) Compared to 7-bit @acronym{ASCII}, the set
4723 of characters which are letters is different; this alters the behavior
4724 of regular expression matching. Thus, the default regular expression
4725 for a keyword allows foreign or diacriticized letters. Keyword sorting,
4726 however, is still crude; it obeys the underlying character set ordering
4732 @itemx --ignore-case
4733 Fold lower case letters to upper case for sorting.
4738 @node Input processing in ptx
4739 @subsection Word selection and input processing
4744 @itemx --break-file=@var{file}
4746 This option provides an alternative (to @option{-W}) method of describing
4747 which characters make up words. It introduces the name of a
4748 file which contains a list of characters which can@emph{not} be part of
4749 one word; this file is called the @dfn{Break file}. Any character which
4750 is not part of the Break file is a word constituent. If both options
4751 @option{-b} and @option{-W} are specified, then @option{-W} has precedence and
4752 @option{-b} is ignored.
4754 When @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled, the only way to avoid newline as a
4755 break character is to write all the break characters in the file with no
4756 newline at all, not even at the end of the file. When @sc{gnu} extensions
4757 are disabled, spaces, tabs and newlines are always considered as break
4758 characters even if not included in the Break file.
4761 @itemx --ignore-file=@var{file}
4763 The file associated with this option contains a list of words which will
4764 never be taken as keywords in concordance output. It is called the
4765 @dfn{Ignore file}. The file contains exactly one word in each line; the
4766 end of line separation of words is not subject to the value of the
4770 @itemx --only-file=@var{file}
4772 The file associated with this option contains a list of words which will
4773 be retained in concordance output; any word not mentioned in this file
4774 is ignored. The file is called the @dfn{Only file}. The file contains
4775 exactly one word in each line; the end of line separation of words is
4776 not subject to the value of the @option{-S} option.
4778 There is no default for the Only file. When both an Only file and an
4779 Ignore file are specified, a word is considered a keyword only
4780 if it is listed in the Only file and not in the Ignore file.
4785 On each input line, the leading sequence of non-white space characters will be
4786 taken to be a reference that has the purpose of identifying this input
4787 line in the resulting permuted index. For more information about reference
4788 production, see @xref{Output formatting in ptx}.
4789 Using this option changes the default value for option @option{-S}.
4791 Using this option, the program does not try very hard to remove
4792 references from contexts in output, but it succeeds in doing so
4793 @emph{when} the context ends exactly at the newline. If option
4794 @option{-r} is used with @option{-S} default value, or when @sc{gnu} extensions
4795 are disabled, this condition is always met and references are completely
4796 excluded from the output contexts.
4798 @item -S @var{regexp}
4799 @itemx --sentence-regexp=@var{regexp}
4801 This option selects which regular expression will describe the end of a
4802 line or the end of a sentence. In fact, this regular expression is not
4803 the only distinction between end of lines or end of sentences, and input
4804 line boundaries have no special significance outside this option. By
4805 default, when @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled and if @option{-r} option is not
4806 used, end of sentences are used. In this case, this @var{regex} is
4807 imported from @sc{gnu} Emacs:
4810 [.?!][]\"')@}]*\\($\\|\t\\| \\)[ \t\n]*
4813 Whenever @sc{gnu} extensions are disabled or if @option{-r} option is used, end
4814 of lines are used; in this case, the default @var{regexp} is just:
4820 Using an empty @var{regexp} is equivalent to completely disabling end of
4821 line or end of sentence recognition. In this case, the whole file is
4822 considered to be a single big line or sentence. The user might want to
4823 disallow all truncation flag generation as well, through option @option{-F
4824 ""}. @xref{Regexps, , Syntax of Regular Expressions, emacs, The GNU Emacs
4827 When the keywords happen to be near the beginning of the input line or
4828 sentence, this often creates an unused area at the beginning of the
4829 output context line; when the keywords happen to be near the end of the
4830 input line or sentence, this often creates an unused area at the end of
4831 the output context line. The program tries to fill those unused areas
4832 by wrapping around context in them; the tail of the input line or
4833 sentence is used to fill the unused area on the left of the output line;
4834 the head of the input line or sentence is used to fill the unused area
4835 on the right of the output line.
4837 As a matter of convenience to the user, many usual backslashed escape
4838 sequences from the C language are recognized and converted to the
4839 corresponding characters by @command{ptx} itself.
4841 @item -W @var{regexp}
4842 @itemx --word-regexp=@var{regexp}
4844 This option selects which regular expression will describe each keyword.
4845 By default, if @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled, a word is a sequence of
4846 letters; the @var{regexp} used is @samp{\w+}. When @sc{gnu} extensions are
4847 disabled, a word is by default anything which ends with a space, a tab
4848 or a newline; the @var{regexp} used is @samp{[^ \t\n]+}.
4850 An empty @var{regexp} is equivalent to not using this option.
4851 @xref{Regexps, , Syntax of Regular Expressions, emacs, The GNU Emacs
4854 As a matter of convenience to the user, many usual backslashed escape
4855 sequences, as found in the C language, are recognized and converted to
4856 the corresponding characters by @command{ptx} itself.
4861 @node Output formatting in ptx
4862 @subsection Output formatting
4864 Output format is mainly controlled by the @option{-O} and @option{-T} options
4865 described in the table below. When neither @option{-O} nor @option{-T} are
4866 selected, and if @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled, the program chooses an
4867 output format suitable for a dumb terminal. Each keyword occurrence is
4868 output to the center of one line, surrounded by its left and right
4869 contexts. Each field is properly justified, so the concordance output
4870 can be readily observed. As a special feature, if automatic
4871 references are selected by option @option{-A} and are output before the
4872 left context, that is, if option @option{-R} is @emph{not} selected, then
4873 a colon is added after the reference; this nicely interfaces with @sc{gnu}
4874 Emacs @code{next-error} processing. In this default output format, each
4875 white space character, like newline and tab, is merely changed to
4876 exactly one space, with no special attempt to compress consecutive
4877 spaces. This might change in the future. Except for those white space
4878 characters, every other character of the underlying set of 256
4879 characters is transmitted verbatim.
4881 Output format is further controlled by the following options.
4885 @item -g @var{number}
4886 @itemx --gap-size=@var{number}
4888 Select the size of the minimum white space gap between the fields on the
4891 @item -w @var{number}
4892 @itemx --width=@var{number}
4894 Select the maximum output width of each final line. If references are
4895 used, they are included or excluded from the maximum output width
4896 depending on the value of option @option{-R}. If this option is not
4897 selected, that is, when references are output before the left context,
4898 the maximum output width takes into account the maximum length of all
4899 references. If this option is selected, that is, when references are
4900 output after the right context, the maximum output width does not take
4901 into account the space taken by references, nor the gap that precedes
4905 @itemx --auto-reference
4907 Select automatic references. Each input line will have an automatic
4908 reference made up of the file name and the line ordinal, with a single
4909 colon between them. However, the file name will be empty when standard
4910 input is being read. If both @option{-A} and @option{-r} are selected, then
4911 the input reference is still read and skipped, but the automatic
4912 reference is used at output time, overriding the input reference.
4915 @itemx --right-side-refs
4917 In the default output format, when option @option{-R} is not used, any
4918 references produced by the effect of options @option{-r} or @option{-A} are
4919 placed to the far right of output lines, after the right context. With
4920 default output format, when the @option{-R} option is specified, references
4921 are rather placed at the beginning of each output line, before the left
4922 context. For any other output format, option @option{-R} is
4923 ignored, with one exception: with @option{-R} the width of references
4924 is @emph{not} taken into account in total output width given by @option{-w}.
4926 This option is automatically selected whenever @sc{gnu} extensions are
4929 @item -F @var{string}
4930 @itemx --flac-truncation=@var{string}
4932 This option will request that any truncation in the output be reported
4933 using the string @var{string}. Most output fields theoretically extend
4934 towards the beginning or the end of the current line, or current
4935 sentence, as selected with option @option{-S}. But there is a maximum
4936 allowed output line width, changeable through option @option{-w}, which is
4937 further divided into space for various output fields. When a field has
4938 to be truncated because it cannot extend beyond the beginning or the end of
4939 the current line to fit in, then a truncation occurs. By default,
4940 the string used is a single slash, as in @option{-F /}.
4942 @var{string} may have more than one character, as in @option{-F ...}.
4943 Also, in the particular case when @var{string} is empty (@option{-F ""}),
4944 truncation flagging is disabled, and no truncation marks are appended in
4947 As a matter of convenience to the user, many usual backslashed escape
4948 sequences, as found in the C language, are recognized and converted to
4949 the corresponding characters by @command{ptx} itself.
4951 @item -M @var{string}
4952 @itemx --macro-name=@var{string}
4954 Select another @var{string} to be used instead of @samp{xx}, while
4955 generating output suitable for @command{nroff}, @command{troff} or @TeX{}.
4958 @itemx --format=roff
4960 Choose an output format suitable for @command{nroff} or @command{troff}
4961 processing. Each output line will look like:
4964 .xx "@var{tail}" "@var{before}" "@var{keyword_and_after}" "@var{head}" "@var{ref}"
4967 so it will be possible to write a @samp{.xx} roff macro to take care of
4968 the output typesetting. This is the default output format when @sc{gnu}
4969 extensions are disabled. Option @option{-M} can be used to change
4970 @samp{xx} to another macro name.
4972 In this output format, each non-graphical character, like newline and
4973 tab, is merely changed to exactly one space, with no special attempt to
4974 compress consecutive spaces. Each quote character: @kbd{"} is doubled
4975 so it will be correctly processed by @command{nroff} or @command{troff}.
4980 Choose an output format suitable for @TeX{} processing. Each output
4981 line will look like:
4984 \xx @{@var{tail}@}@{@var{before}@}@{@var{keyword}@}@{@var{after}@}@{@var{head}@}@{@var{ref}@}
4988 so it will be possible to write a @code{\xx} definition to take care of
4989 the output typesetting. Note that when references are not being
4990 produced, that is, neither option @option{-A} nor option @option{-r} is
4991 selected, the last parameter of each @code{\xx} call is inhibited.
4992 Option @option{-M} can be used to change @samp{xx} to another macro
4995 In this output format, some special characters, like @kbd{$}, @kbd{%},
4996 @kbd{&}, @kbd{#} and @kbd{_} are automatically protected with a
4997 backslash. Curly brackets @kbd{@{}, @kbd{@}} are protected with a
4998 backslash and a pair of dollar signs (to force mathematical mode). The
4999 backslash itself produces the sequence @code{\backslash@{@}}.
5000 Circumflex and tilde diacritical marks produce the sequence @code{^\@{ @}} and
5001 @code{~\@{ @}} respectively. Other diacriticized characters of the
5002 underlying character set produce an appropriate @TeX{} sequence as far
5003 as possible. The other non-graphical characters, like newline and tab,
5004 and all other characters which are not part of @acronym{ASCII}, are merely
5005 changed to exactly one space, with no special attempt to compress
5006 consecutive spaces. Let me know how to improve this special character
5007 processing for @TeX{}.
5012 @node Compatibility in ptx
5013 @subsection The @sc{gnu} extensions to @command{ptx}
5015 This version of @command{ptx} contains a few features which do not exist in
5016 System V @command{ptx}. These extra features are suppressed by using the
5017 @option{-G} command line option, unless overridden by other command line
5018 options. Some @sc{gnu} extensions cannot be recovered by overriding, so the
5019 simple rule is to avoid @option{-G} if you care about @sc{gnu} extensions.
5020 Here are the differences between this program and System V @command{ptx}.
5025 This program can read many input files at once, it always writes the
5026 resulting concordance on standard output. On the other hand, System V
5027 @command{ptx} reads only one file and sends the result to standard output
5028 or, if a second @var{file} parameter is given on the command, to that
5031 Having output parameters not introduced by options is a dangerous
5032 practice which @sc{gnu} avoids as far as possible. So, for using @command{ptx}
5033 portably between @sc{gnu} and System V, you should always use it with a
5034 single input file, and always expect the result on standard output. You
5035 might also want to automatically configure in a @option{-G} option to
5036 @command{ptx} calls in products using @command{ptx}, if the configurator finds
5037 that the installed @command{ptx} accepts @option{-G}.
5040 The only options available in System V @command{ptx} are options @option{-b},
5041 @option{-f}, @option{-g}, @option{-i}, @option{-o}, @option{-r}, @option{-t} and
5042 @option{-w}. All other options are @sc{gnu} extensions and are not repeated in
5043 this enumeration. Moreover, some options have a slightly different
5044 meaning when @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled, as explained below.
5047 By default, concordance output is not formatted for @command{troff} or
5048 @command{nroff}. It is rather formatted for a dumb terminal. @command{troff}
5049 or @command{nroff} output may still be selected through option @option{-O}.
5052 Unless @option{-R} option is used, the maximum reference width is
5053 subtracted from the total output line width. With @sc{gnu} extensions
5054 disabled, width of references is not taken into account in the output
5055 line width computations.
5058 All 256 bytes, even @acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul} bytes, are always read and
5059 processed from input file with no adverse effect, even if @sc{gnu} extensions
5060 are disabled. However, System V @command{ptx} does not accept 8-bit characters,
5061 a few control characters are rejected, and the tilde @kbd{~} is also rejected.
5064 Input line length is only limited by available memory, even if @sc{gnu}
5065 extensions are disabled. However, System V @command{ptx} processes only
5066 the first 200 characters in each line.
5069 The break (non-word) characters default to be every character except all
5070 letters of the underlying character set, diacriticized or not. When @sc{gnu}
5071 extensions are disabled, the break characters default to space, tab and
5075 The program makes better use of output line width. If @sc{gnu} extensions
5076 are disabled, the program rather tries to imitate System V @command{ptx},
5077 but still, there are some slight disposition glitches this program does
5078 not completely reproduce.
5081 The user can specify both an Ignore file and an Only file. This is not
5082 allowed with System V @command{ptx}.
5087 @node tsort invocation
5088 @section @command{tsort}: Topological sort
5091 @cindex topological sort
5093 @command{tsort} performs a topological sort on the given @var{file}, or
5094 standard input if no input file is given or for a @var{file} of
5095 @samp{-}. For more details and some history, see @ref{tsort background}.
5099 tsort [@var{option}] [@var{file}]
5102 @command{tsort} reads its input as pairs of strings, separated by blanks,
5103 indicating a partial ordering. The output is a total ordering that
5104 corresponds to the given partial ordering.
5118 will produce the output
5129 Consider a more realistic example.
5130 You have a large set of functions all in one file, and they may all be
5131 declared static except one. Currently that one (say @code{main}) is the
5132 first function defined in the file, and the ones it calls directly follow
5133 it, followed by those they call, etc. Let's say that you are determined
5134 to take advantage of prototypes, so you have to choose between declaring
5135 all of those functions (which means duplicating a lot of information from
5136 the definitions) and rearranging the functions so that as many as possible
5137 are defined before they are used. One way to automate the latter process
5138 is to get a list for each function of the functions it calls directly.
5139 Many programs can generate such lists. They describe a call graph.
5140 Consider the following list, in which a given line indicates that the
5141 function on the left calls the one on the right directly.
5147 tail_file pretty_name
5148 tail_file write_header
5150 tail_forever recheck
5151 tail_forever pretty_name
5152 tail_forever write_header
5153 tail_forever dump_remainder
5156 tail_lines start_lines
5157 tail_lines dump_remainder
5158 tail_lines file_lines
5159 tail_lines pipe_lines
5161 tail_bytes start_bytes
5162 tail_bytes dump_remainder
5163 tail_bytes pipe_bytes
5164 file_lines dump_remainder
5168 then you can use @command{tsort} to produce an ordering of those
5169 functions that satisfies your requirement.
5172 example$ tsort call-graph | tac
5192 @command{tsort} detects any cycles in the input and writes the first cycle
5193 encountered to standard error.
5195 Note that for a given partial ordering, generally there is no unique
5196 total ordering. In the context of the call graph above, the function
5197 @code{parse_options} may be placed anywhere in the list as long as it
5198 precedes @code{main}.
5200 The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}. @xref{Common
5206 * tsort background:: Where tsort came from.
5209 @node tsort background
5210 @subsection @command{tsort}: Background
5212 @command{tsort} exists because very early versions of the Unix linker processed
5213 an archive file exactly once, and in order. As @command{ld} read each object
5214 in the archive, it decided whether it was needed in the program based on
5215 whether it defined any symbols which were undefined at that point in
5218 This meant that dependencies within the archive had to be handled
5219 specially. For example, @code{scanf} probably calls @code{read}. That means
5220 that in a single pass through an archive, it was important for @code{scanf.o}
5221 to appear before read.o, because otherwise a program which calls
5222 @code{scanf} but not @code{read} might end up with an unexpected unresolved
5223 reference to @code{read}.
5225 The way to address this problem was to first generate a set of
5226 dependencies of one object file on another. This was done by a shell
5227 script called @command{lorder}. The GNU tools don't provide a version of
5228 lorder, as far as I know, but you can still find it in BSD
5231 Then you ran @command{tsort} over the @command{lorder} output, and you used the
5232 resulting sort to define the order in which you added objects to the archive.
5234 This whole procedure has been obsolete since about 1980, because
5235 Unix archives now contain a symbol table (traditionally built by
5236 @command{ranlib}, now generally built by @command{ar} itself), and the Unix
5237 linker uses the symbol table to effectively make multiple passes over
5240 Anyhow, that's where tsort came from. To solve an old problem with
5241 the way the linker handled archive files, which has since been solved
5245 @node Operating on fields within a line
5246 @chapter Operating on fields within a line
5249 * cut invocation:: Print selected parts of lines.
5250 * paste invocation:: Merge lines of files.
5251 * join invocation:: Join lines on a common field.
5255 @node cut invocation
5256 @section @command{cut}: Print selected parts of lines
5259 @command{cut} writes to standard output selected parts of each line of each
5260 input file, or standard input if no files are given or for a file name of
5264 cut @var{option}@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
5267 In the table which follows, the @var{byte-list}, @var{character-list},
5268 and @var{field-list} are one or more numbers or ranges (two numbers
5269 separated by a dash) separated by commas. Bytes, characters, and
5270 fields are numbered starting at 1. Incomplete ranges may be
5271 given: @option{-@var{m}} means @samp{1-@var{m}}; @samp{@var{n}-} means
5272 @samp{@var{n}} through end of line or last field. The list elements
5273 can be repeated, can overlap, and can be specified in any order; but
5274 the selected input is written in the same order that it is read, and
5275 is written exactly once.
5277 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common
5282 @item -b @var{byte-list}
5283 @itemx --bytes=@var{byte-list}
5286 Select for printing only the bytes in positions listed in
5287 @var{byte-list}. Tabs and backspaces are treated like any other
5288 character; they take up 1 byte. If an output delimiter is specified,
5289 (see the description of @option{--output-delimiter}), then output that
5290 string between ranges of selected bytes.
5292 @item -c @var{character-list}
5293 @itemx --characters=@var{character-list}
5295 @opindex --characters
5296 Select for printing only the characters in positions listed in
5297 @var{character-list}. The same as @option{-b} for now, but
5298 internationalization will change that. Tabs and backspaces are
5299 treated like any other character; they take up 1 character. If an
5300 output delimiter is specified, (see the description of
5301 @option{--output-delimiter}), then output that string between ranges
5304 @item -f @var{field-list}
5305 @itemx --fields=@var{field-list}
5308 Select for printing only the fields listed in @var{field-list}.
5309 Fields are separated by a TAB character by default. Also print any
5310 line that contains no delimiter character, unless the
5311 @option{--only-delimited} (@option{-s}) option is specified
5313 @item -d @var{input_delim_byte}
5314 @itemx --delimiter=@var{input_delim_byte}
5316 @opindex --delimiter
5317 With @option{-f}, use the first byte of @var{input_delim_byte} as
5318 the input fields separator (default is TAB).
5322 Do not split multi-byte characters (no-op for now).
5325 @itemx --only-delimited
5327 @opindex --only-delimited
5328 For @option{-f}, do not print lines that do not contain the field separator
5329 character. Normally, any line without a field separator is printed verbatim.
5331 @item --output-delimiter=@var{output_delim_string}
5332 @opindex --output-delimiter
5333 With @option{-f}, output fields are separated by @var{output_delim_string}.
5334 The default with @option{-f} is to use the input delimiter.
5335 When using @option{-b} or @option{-c} to select ranges of byte or
5336 character offsets (as opposed to ranges of fields),
5337 output @var{output_delim_string} between non-overlapping
5338 ranges of selected bytes.
5341 @opindex --complement
5342 This option is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
5343 Select for printing the complement of the bytes, characters or fields
5344 selected with the @option{-b}, @option{-c} or @option{-f} options.
5345 In other words, do @emph{not} print the bytes, characters or fields
5346 specified via those options. This option is useful when you have
5347 many fields and want to print all but a few of them.
5354 @node paste invocation
5355 @section @command{paste}: Merge lines of files
5358 @cindex merging files
5360 @command{paste} writes to standard output lines consisting of sequentially
5361 corresponding lines of each given file, separated by a TAB character.
5362 Standard input is used for a file name of @samp{-} or if no input files
5384 paste [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
5387 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
5395 Paste the lines of one file at a time rather than one line from each
5396 file. Using the above example data:
5399 $ paste -s num2 let3
5404 @item -d @var{delim-list}
5405 @itemx --delimiters=@var{delim-list}
5407 @opindex --delimiters
5408 Consecutively use the characters in @var{delim-list} instead of
5409 TAB to separate merged lines. When @var{delim-list} is
5410 exhausted, start again at its beginning. Using the above example data:
5413 $ paste -d '%_' num2 let3 num2
5424 @node join invocation
5425 @section @command{join}: Join lines on a common field
5428 @cindex common field, joining on
5430 @command{join} writes to standard output a line for each pair of input
5431 lines that have identical join fields. Synopsis:
5434 join [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{file1} @var{file2}
5437 Either @var{file1} or @var{file2} (but not both) can be @samp{-},
5438 meaning standard input. @var{file1} and @var{file2} should be
5439 sorted on the join fields.
5442 Normally, the sort order is that of the
5443 collating sequence specified by the @env{LC_COLLATE} locale. Unless
5444 the @option{-t} option is given, the sort comparison ignores blanks at
5445 the start of the join field, as in @code{sort -b}. If the
5446 @option{--ignore-case} option is given, the sort comparison ignores
5447 the case of characters in the join field, as in @code{sort -f}.
5449 The @command{sort} and @command{join} commands should use consistent
5450 locales and options if the output of @command{sort} is fed to
5451 @command{join}. You can use a command like @samp{sort -k 1b,1} to
5452 sort a file on its default join field, but if you select a non-default
5453 locale, join field, separator, or comparison options, then you should
5454 do so consistently between @command{join} and @command{sort}.
5456 If the input has no unpairable lines, a @acronym{GNU} extension is
5457 available; the sort order can be any order that considers two fields
5458 to be equal if and only if the sort comparison described above
5459 considers them to be equal. For example:
5476 @checkOrderOption{join}
5480 @item the join field is the first field in each line;
5481 @item fields in the input are separated by one or more blanks, with leading
5482 blanks on the line ignored;
5483 @item fields in the output are separated by a space;
5484 @item each output line consists of the join field, the remaining
5485 fields from @var{file1}, then the remaining fields from @var{file2}.
5488 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
5492 @item -a @var{file-number}
5494 Print a line for each unpairable line in file @var{file-number} (either
5495 @samp{1} or @samp{2}), in addition to the normal output.
5498 Fail with an error message if either input file is wrongly ordered.
5500 @item --nocheck-order
5501 Do not check that both input files are in sorted order. This is the default.
5503 @item -e @var{string}
5505 Replace those output fields that are missing in the input with
5509 @itemx --ignore-case
5511 @opindex --ignore-case
5512 Ignore differences in case when comparing keys.
5513 With this option, the lines of the input files must be ordered in the same way.
5514 Use @samp{sort -f} to produce this ordering.
5516 @item -1 @var{field}
5518 Join on field @var{field} (a positive integer) of file 1.
5520 @item -2 @var{field}
5522 Join on field @var{field} (a positive integer) of file 2.
5524 @item -j @var{field}
5525 Equivalent to @option{-1 @var{field} -2 @var{field}}.
5527 @item -o @var{field-list}
5528 Construct each output line according to the format in @var{field-list}.
5529 Each element in @var{field-list} is either the single character @samp{0} or
5530 has the form @var{m.n} where the file number, @var{m}, is @samp{1} or
5531 @samp{2} and @var{n} is a positive field number.
5533 A field specification of @samp{0} denotes the join field.
5534 In most cases, the functionality of the @samp{0} field spec
5535 may be reproduced using the explicit @var{m.n} that corresponds
5536 to the join field. However, when printing unpairable lines
5537 (using either of the @option{-a} or @option{-v} options), there is no way
5538 to specify the join field using @var{m.n} in @var{field-list}
5539 if there are unpairable lines in both files.
5540 To give @command{join} that functionality, @acronym{POSIX} invented the @samp{0}
5541 field specification notation.
5543 The elements in @var{field-list}
5544 are separated by commas or blanks.
5545 Blank separators typically need to be quoted for the shell. For
5546 example, the commands @samp{join -o 1.2,2.2} and @samp{join -o '1.2
5547 2.2'} are equivalent.
5549 All output lines---including those printed because of any -a or -v
5550 option---are subject to the specified @var{field-list}.
5553 Use character @var{char} as the input and output field separator.
5554 Treat as significant each occurrence of @var{char} in the input file.
5555 Use @samp{sort -t @var{char}}, without the @option{-b} option of
5556 @samp{sort}, to produce this ordering.
5558 @item -v @var{file-number}
5559 Print a line for each unpairable line in file @var{file-number}
5560 (either @samp{1} or @samp{2}), instead of the normal output.
5567 @node Operating on characters
5568 @chapter Operating on characters
5570 @cindex operating on characters
5572 This commands operate on individual characters.
5575 * tr invocation:: Translate, squeeze, and/or delete characters.
5576 * expand invocation:: Convert tabs to spaces.
5577 * unexpand invocation:: Convert spaces to tabs.
5582 @section @command{tr}: Translate, squeeze, and/or delete characters
5589 tr [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{set1} [@var{set2}]
5592 @command{tr} copies standard input to standard output, performing
5593 one of the following operations:
5597 translate, and optionally squeeze repeated characters in the result,
5599 squeeze repeated characters,
5603 delete characters, then squeeze repeated characters from the result.
5606 The @var{set1} and (if given) @var{set2} arguments define ordered
5607 sets of characters, referred to below as @var{set1} and @var{set2}. These
5608 sets are the characters of the input that @command{tr} operates on.
5609 The @option{--complement} (@option{-c}, @option{-C}) option replaces
5611 complement (all of the characters that are not in @var{set1}).
5613 Currently @command{tr} fully supports only single-byte characters.
5614 Eventually it will support multibyte characters; when it does, the
5615 @option{-C} option will cause it to complement the set of characters,
5616 whereas @option{-c} will cause it to complement the set of values.
5617 This distinction will matter only when some values are not characters,
5618 and this is possible only in locales using multibyte encodings when
5619 the input contains encoding errors.
5621 The program accepts the @option{--help} and @option{--version}
5622 options. @xref{Common options}. Options must precede operands.
5627 * Character sets:: Specifying sets of characters.
5628 * Translating:: Changing one set of characters to another.
5629 * Squeezing:: Squeezing repeats and deleting.
5633 @node Character sets
5634 @subsection Specifying sets of characters
5636 @cindex specifying sets of characters
5638 The format of the @var{set1} and @var{set2} arguments resembles
5639 the format of regular expressions; however, they are not regular
5640 expressions, only lists of characters. Most characters simply
5641 represent themselves in these strings, but the strings can contain
5642 the shorthands listed below, for convenience. Some of them can be
5643 used only in @var{set1} or @var{set2}, as noted below.
5647 @item Backslash escapes
5648 @cindex backslash escapes
5650 The following backslash escape sequences are recognized:
5668 The character with the value given by @var{ooo}, which is 1 to 3
5674 While a backslash followed by a character not listed above is
5675 interpreted as that character, the backslash also effectively
5676 removes any special significance, so it is useful to escape
5677 @samp{[}, @samp{]}, @samp{*}, and @samp{-}.
5682 The notation @samp{@var{m}-@var{n}} expands to all of the characters
5683 from @var{m} through @var{n}, in ascending order. @var{m} should
5684 collate before @var{n}; if it doesn't, an error results. As an example,
5685 @samp{0-9} is the same as @samp{0123456789}.
5687 @sc{gnu} @command{tr} does not support the System V syntax that uses square
5688 brackets to enclose ranges. Translations specified in that format
5689 sometimes work as expected, since the brackets are often transliterated
5690 to themselves. However, they should be avoided because they sometimes
5691 behave unexpectedly. For example, @samp{tr -d '[0-9]'} deletes brackets
5694 Many historically common and even accepted uses of ranges are not
5695 portable. For example, on @acronym{EBCDIC} hosts using the @samp{A-Z}
5696 range will not do what most would expect because @samp{A} through @samp{Z}
5697 are not contiguous as they are in @acronym{ASCII}.
5698 If you can rely on a @acronym{POSIX} compliant version of @command{tr}, then
5699 the best way to work around this is to use character classes (see below).
5700 Otherwise, it is most portable (and most ugly) to enumerate the members
5703 @item Repeated characters
5704 @cindex repeated characters
5706 The notation @samp{[@var{c}*@var{n}]} in @var{set2} expands to @var{n}
5707 copies of character @var{c}. Thus, @samp{[y*6]} is the same as
5708 @samp{yyyyyy}. The notation @samp{[@var{c}*]} in @var{string2} expands
5709 to as many copies of @var{c} as are needed to make @var{set2} as long as
5710 @var{set1}. If @var{n} begins with @samp{0}, it is interpreted in
5711 octal, otherwise in decimal.
5713 @item Character classes
5714 @cindex character classes
5716 The notation @samp{[:@var{class}:]} expands to all of the characters in
5717 the (predefined) class @var{class}. The characters expand in no
5718 particular order, except for the @code{upper} and @code{lower} classes,
5719 which expand in ascending order. When the @option{--delete} (@option{-d})
5720 and @option{--squeeze-repeats} (@option{-s}) options are both given, any
5721 character class can be used in @var{set2}. Otherwise, only the
5722 character classes @code{lower} and @code{upper} are accepted in
5723 @var{set2}, and then only if the corresponding character class
5724 (@code{upper} and @code{lower}, respectively) is specified in the same
5725 relative position in @var{set1}. Doing this specifies case conversion.
5726 The class names are given below; an error results when an invalid class
5738 Horizontal whitespace.
5747 Printable characters, not including space.
5753 Printable characters, including space.
5756 Punctuation characters.
5759 Horizontal or vertical whitespace.
5768 @item Equivalence classes
5769 @cindex equivalence classes
5771 The syntax @samp{[=@var{c}=]} expands to all of the characters that are
5772 equivalent to @var{c}, in no particular order. Equivalence classes are
5773 a relatively recent invention intended to support non-English alphabets.
5774 But there seems to be no standard way to define them or determine their
5775 contents. Therefore, they are not fully implemented in @sc{gnu} @command{tr};
5776 each character's equivalence class consists only of that character,
5777 which is of no particular use.
5783 @subsection Translating
5785 @cindex translating characters
5787 @command{tr} performs translation when @var{set1} and @var{set2} are
5788 both given and the @option{--delete} (@option{-d}) option is not given.
5789 @command{tr} translates each character of its input that is in @var{set1}
5790 to the corresponding character in @var{set2}. Characters not in
5791 @var{set1} are passed through unchanged. When a character appears more
5792 than once in @var{set1} and the corresponding characters in @var{set2}
5793 are not all the same, only the final one is used. For example, these
5794 two commands are equivalent:
5801 A common use of @command{tr} is to convert lowercase characters to
5802 uppercase. This can be done in many ways. Here are three of them:
5805 tr abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
5807 tr '[:lower:]' '[:upper:]'
5811 But note that using ranges like @code{a-z} above is not portable.
5813 When @command{tr} is performing translation, @var{set1} and @var{set2}
5814 typically have the same length. If @var{set1} is shorter than
5815 @var{set2}, the extra characters at the end of @var{set2} are ignored.
5817 On the other hand, making @var{set1} longer than @var{set2} is not
5818 portable; @acronym{POSIX} says that the result is undefined. In this situation,
5819 BSD @command{tr} pads @var{set2} to the length of @var{set1} by repeating
5820 the last character of @var{set2} as many times as necessary. System V
5821 @command{tr} truncates @var{set1} to the length of @var{set2}.
5823 By default, @sc{gnu} @command{tr} handles this case like BSD @command{tr}.
5824 When the @option{--truncate-set1} (@option{-t}) option is given,
5825 @sc{gnu} @command{tr} handles this case like the System V @command{tr}
5826 instead. This option is ignored for operations other than translation.
5828 Acting like System V @command{tr} in this case breaks the relatively common
5832 tr -cs A-Za-z0-9 '\012'
5836 because it converts only zero bytes (the first element in the
5837 complement of @var{set1}), rather than all non-alphanumerics, to
5841 By the way, the above idiom is not portable because it uses ranges, and
5842 it assumes that the octal code for newline is 012.
5843 Assuming a @acronym{POSIX} compliant @command{tr}, here is a better way to write it:
5846 tr -cs '[:alnum:]' '[\n*]'
5851 @subsection Squeezing repeats and deleting
5853 @cindex squeezing repeat characters
5854 @cindex deleting characters
5856 When given just the @option{--delete} (@option{-d}) option, @command{tr}
5857 removes any input characters that are in @var{set1}.
5859 When given just the @option{--squeeze-repeats} (@option{-s}) option,
5860 @command{tr} replaces each input sequence of a repeated character that
5861 is in @var{set1} with a single occurrence of that character.
5863 When given both @option{--delete} and @option{--squeeze-repeats}, @command{tr}
5864 first performs any deletions using @var{set1}, then squeezes repeats
5865 from any remaining characters using @var{set2}.
5867 The @option{--squeeze-repeats} option may also be used when translating,
5868 in which case @command{tr} first performs translation, then squeezes
5869 repeats from any remaining characters using @var{set2}.
5871 Here are some examples to illustrate various combinations of options:
5876 Remove all zero bytes:
5883 Put all words on lines by themselves. This converts all
5884 non-alphanumeric characters to newlines, then squeezes each string
5885 of repeated newlines into a single newline:
5888 tr -cs '[:alnum:]' '[\n*]'
5892 Convert each sequence of repeated newlines to a single newline:
5899 Find doubled occurrences of words in a document.
5900 @c Separate the following two "the"s, so typo checkers don't complain.
5901 For example, people often write ``the @w{}the'' with the repeated words
5902 separated by a newline. The Bourne shell script below works first
5903 by converting each sequence of punctuation and blank characters to a
5904 single newline. That puts each ``word'' on a line by itself.
5905 Next it maps all uppercase characters to lower case, and finally it
5906 runs @command{uniq} with the @option{-d} option to print out only the words
5912 | tr -s '[:punct:][:blank:]' '[\n*]' \
5913 | tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' \
5918 Deleting a small set of characters is usually straightforward. For example,
5919 to remove all @samp{a}s, @samp{x}s, and @samp{M}s you would do this:
5925 However, when @samp{-} is one of those characters, it can be tricky because
5926 @samp{-} has special meanings. Performing the same task as above but also
5927 removing all @samp{-} characters, we might try @code{tr -d -axM}, but
5928 that would fail because @command{tr} would try to interpret @option{-a} as
5929 a command-line option. Alternatively, we could try putting the hyphen
5930 inside the string, @code{tr -d a-xM}, but that wouldn't work either because
5931 it would make @command{tr} interpret @code{a-x} as the range of characters
5932 @samp{a}@dots{}@samp{x} rather than the three.
5933 One way to solve the problem is to put the hyphen at the end of the list
5940 Or you can use @samp{--} to terminate option processing:
5946 More generally, use the character class notation @code{[=c=]}
5947 with @samp{-} (or any other character) in place of the @samp{c}:
5953 Note how single quotes are used in the above example to protect the
5954 square brackets from interpretation by a shell.
5959 @node expand invocation
5960 @section @command{expand}: Convert tabs to spaces
5963 @cindex tabs to spaces, converting
5964 @cindex converting tabs to spaces
5966 @command{expand} writes the contents of each given @var{file}, or standard
5967 input if none are given or for a @var{file} of @samp{-}, to standard
5968 output, with tab characters converted to the appropriate number of
5972 expand [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
5975 By default, @command{expand} converts all tabs to spaces. It preserves
5976 backspace characters in the output; they decrement the column count for
5977 tab calculations. The default action is equivalent to @option{-t 8} (set
5978 tabs every 8 columns).
5980 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
5984 @item -t @var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}
5985 @itemx --tabs=@var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}
5988 @cindex tab stops, setting
5989 If only one tab stop is given, set the tabs @var{tab1} spaces apart
5990 (default is 8). Otherwise, set the tabs at columns @var{tab1},
5991 @var{tab2}, @dots{} (numbered from 0), and replace any tabs beyond the
5992 last tab stop given with single spaces. Tab stops can be separated by
5993 blanks as well as by commas.
5995 For compatibility, GNU @command{expand} also accepts the obsolete
5996 option syntax, @option{-@var{t1}[,@var{t2}]@dots{}}. New scripts
5997 should use @option{-t @var{t1}[,@var{t2}]@dots{}} instead.
6003 @cindex initial tabs, converting
6004 Only convert initial tabs (those that precede all non-space or non-tab
6005 characters) on each line to spaces.
6012 @node unexpand invocation
6013 @section @command{unexpand}: Convert spaces to tabs
6017 @command{unexpand} writes the contents of each given @var{file}, or
6018 standard input if none are given or for a @var{file} of @samp{-}, to
6019 standard output, converting blanks at the beginning of each line into
6020 as many tab characters as needed. In the default @acronym{POSIX}
6021 locale, a @dfn{blank} is a space or a tab; other locales may specify
6022 additional blank characters. Synopsis:
6025 unexpand [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
6028 By default, @command{unexpand} converts only initial blanks (those
6029 that precede all non-blank characters) on each line. It
6030 preserves backspace characters in the output; they decrement the column
6031 count for tab calculations. By default, tabs are set at every 8th
6034 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
6038 @item -t @var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}
6039 @itemx --tabs=@var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}
6042 If only one tab stop is given, set the tabs @var{tab1} columns apart
6043 instead of the default 8. Otherwise, set the tabs at columns
6044 @var{tab1}, @var{tab2}, @dots{} (numbered from 0), and leave blanks
6045 beyond the tab stops given unchanged. Tab stops can be separated by
6046 blanks as well as by commas. This option implies the @option{-a} option.
6048 For compatibility, GNU @command{unexpand} supports the obsolete option syntax,
6049 @option{-@var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}}, where tab stops must be
6050 separated by commas. (Unlike @option{-t}, this obsolete option does
6051 not imply @option{-a}.) New scripts should use @option{--first-only -t
6052 @var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}} instead.
6058 Also convert all sequences of two or more blanks just before a tab stop,
6059 even if they occur after non-blank characters in a line.
6066 @node Directory listing
6067 @chapter Directory listing
6069 This chapter describes the @command{ls} command and its variants @command{dir}
6070 and @command{vdir}, which list information about files.
6073 * ls invocation:: List directory contents.
6074 * dir invocation:: Briefly ls.
6075 * vdir invocation:: Verbosely ls.
6076 * dircolors invocation:: Color setup for ls, etc.
6081 @section @command{ls}: List directory contents
6084 @cindex directory listing
6086 The @command{ls} program lists information about files (of any type,
6087 including directories). Options and file arguments can be intermixed
6088 arbitrarily, as usual.
6090 For non-option command-line arguments that are directories, by default
6091 @command{ls} lists the contents of directories, not recursively, and
6092 omitting files with names beginning with @samp{.}. For other non-option
6093 arguments, by default @command{ls} lists just the file name. If no
6094 non-option argument is specified, @command{ls} operates on the current
6095 directory, acting as if it had been invoked with a single argument of @samp{.}.
6098 By default, the output is sorted alphabetically, according to the locale
6099 settings in effect.@footnote{If you use a non-@acronym{POSIX}
6100 locale (e.g., by setting @env{LC_ALL} to @samp{en_US}), then @command{ls} may
6101 produce output that is sorted differently than you're accustomed to.
6102 In that case, set the @env{LC_ALL} environment variable to @samp{C}.}
6103 If standard output is
6104 a terminal, the output is in columns (sorted vertically) and control
6105 characters are output as question marks; otherwise, the output is listed
6106 one per line and control characters are output as-is.
6108 Because @command{ls} is such a fundamental program, it has accumulated many
6109 options over the years. They are described in the subsections below;
6110 within each section, options are listed alphabetically (ignoring case).
6111 The division of options into the subsections is not absolute, since some
6112 options affect more than one aspect of @command{ls}'s operation.
6114 @cindex exit status of @command{ls}
6119 1 minor problems (e.g., failure to access a file or directory not
6120 specified as a command line argument. This happens when listing a
6121 directory in which entries are actively being removed or renamed.)
6122 2 serious trouble (e.g., memory exhausted, invalid option or failure
6123 to access file or directory specified as a command line argument)
6126 Also see @ref{Common options}.
6129 * Which files are listed::
6130 * What information is listed::
6131 * Sorting the output::
6132 * More details about version sort::
6133 * General output formatting::
6134 * Formatting file timestamps::
6135 * Formatting the file names::
6139 @node Which files are listed
6140 @subsection Which files are listed
6142 These options determine which files @command{ls} lists information for.
6143 By default, @command{ls} lists files and the contents of any
6144 directories on the command line, except that in directories it ignores
6145 files whose names start with @samp{.}.
6153 In directories, do not ignore file names that start with @samp{.}.
6158 @opindex --almost-all
6159 In directories, do not ignore all file names that start with @samp{.};
6160 ignore only @file{.} and @file{..}. The @option{--all} (@option{-a})
6161 option overrides this option.
6164 @itemx --ignore-backups
6166 @opindex --ignore-backups
6167 @cindex backup files, ignoring
6168 In directories, ignore files that end with @samp{~}. This option is
6169 equivalent to @samp{--ignore='*~' --ignore='.*~'}.
6174 @opindex --directory
6175 List just the names of directories, as with other types of files, rather
6176 than listing their contents.
6177 @c The following sentence is the same as the one for -F.
6178 Do not follow symbolic links listed on the
6179 command line unless the @option{--dereference-command-line} (@option{-H}),
6180 @option{--dereference} (@option{-L}), or
6181 @option{--dereference-command-line-symlink-to-dir} options are specified.
6184 @itemx --dereference-command-line
6186 @opindex --dereference-command-line
6187 @cindex symbolic links, dereferencing
6188 If a command line argument specifies a symbolic link, show information
6189 for the file the link references rather than for the link itself.
6191 @itemx --dereference-command-line-symlink-to-dir
6192 @opindex --dereference-command-line-symlink-to-dir
6193 @cindex symbolic links, dereferencing
6194 Do not dereference symbolic links, with one exception:
6195 if a command line argument specifies a symbolic link that refers to
6196 a directory, show information for that directory rather than for the
6198 This is the default behavior when no other dereferencing-related
6199 option has been specified (@option{--classify} (@option{-F}),
6200 @option{--directory} (@option{-d}),
6202 @option{--dereference} (@option{-L}), or
6203 @option{--dereference-command-line} (@option{-H})).
6205 @item --group-directories-first
6206 @opindex --group-directories-first
6207 Group all the directories before the files and then sort the
6208 directories and the files separately using the selected sort key
6209 (see --sort option).
6210 That is, this option specifies a primary sort key,
6211 and the --sort option specifies a secondary key.
6212 However, any use of @option{--sort=none}
6213 (@option{-U}) disables this option altogether.
6215 @item --hide=PATTERN
6216 @opindex --hide=@var{pattern}
6217 In directories, ignore files whose names match the shell pattern
6218 @var{pattern}, unless the @option{--all} (@option{-a}) or
6219 @option{--almost-all} (@option{-A}) is also given. This
6220 option acts like @option{--ignore=@var{pattern}} except that it has no
6221 effect if @option{--all} (@option{-a}) or @option{--almost-all}
6222 (@option{-A}) is also given.
6224 This option can be useful in shell aliases. For example, if
6225 @command{lx} is an alias for @samp{ls --hide='*~'} and @command{ly} is
6226 an alias for @samp{ls --ignore='*~'}, then the command @samp{lx -A}
6227 lists the file @file{README~} even though @samp{ly -A} would not.
6229 @item -I @var{pattern}
6230 @itemx --ignore=@var{pattern}
6232 @opindex --ignore=@var{pattern}
6233 In directories, ignore files whose names match the shell pattern
6234 (not regular expression) @var{pattern}. As
6235 in the shell, an initial @samp{.} in a file name does not match a
6236 wildcard at the start of @var{pattern}. Sometimes it is useful
6237 to give this option several times. For example,
6240 $ ls --ignore='.??*' --ignore='.[^.]' --ignore='#*'
6243 The first option ignores names of length 3 or more that start with @samp{.},
6244 the second ignores all two-character names that start with @samp{.}
6245 except @samp{..}, and the third ignores names that start with @samp{#}.
6248 @itemx --dereference
6250 @opindex --dereference
6251 @cindex symbolic links, dereferencing
6252 When showing file information for a symbolic link, show information
6253 for the file the link references rather than the link itself.
6254 However, even with this option, @command{ls} still prints the name
6255 of the link itself, not the name of the file that the link points to.
6260 @opindex --recursive
6261 @cindex recursive directory listing
6262 @cindex directory listing, recursive
6263 List the contents of all directories recursively.
6268 @node What information is listed
6269 @subsection What information is listed
6271 These options affect the information that @command{ls} displays. By
6272 default, only file names are shown.
6278 @cindex hurd, author, printing
6279 List each file's author when producing long format directory listings.
6280 In GNU/Hurd, file authors can differ from their owners, but in other
6281 operating systems the two are the same.
6287 @cindex dired Emacs mode support
6288 With the long listing (@option{-l}) format, print an additional line after
6292 //DIRED// @var{beg1} @var{end1} @var{beg2} @var{end2} @dots{}
6296 The @var{begn} and @var{endn} are unsigned integers that record the
6297 byte position of the beginning and end of each file name in the output.
6298 This makes it easy for Emacs to find the names, even when they contain
6299 unusual characters such as space or newline, without fancy searching.
6301 If directories are being listed recursively (@option{-R}), output a similar
6302 line with offsets for each subdirectory name:
6305 //SUBDIRED// @var{beg1} @var{end1} @dots{}
6308 Finally, output a line of the form:
6311 //DIRED-OPTIONS// --quoting-style=@var{word}
6315 where @var{word} is the quoting style (@pxref{Formatting the file names}).
6317 Here is an actual example:
6320 $ mkdir -p a/sub/deeper a/sub2
6322 $ touch a/sub/deeper/file
6323 $ ls -gloRF --dired a
6326 -rw-r--r-- 1 0 Jun 10 12:27 f1
6327 -rw-r--r-- 1 0 Jun 10 12:27 f2
6328 drwxr-xr-x 3 4096 Jun 10 12:27 sub/
6329 drwxr-xr-x 2 4096 Jun 10 12:27 sub2/
6333 drwxr-xr-x 2 4096 Jun 10 12:27 deeper/
6337 -rw-r--r-- 1 0 Jun 10 12:27 file
6341 //DIRED// 48 50 84 86 120 123 158 162 217 223 282 286
6342 //SUBDIRED// 2 3 167 172 228 240 290 296
6343 //DIRED-OPTIONS// --quoting-style=literal
6346 Note that the pairs of offsets on the @samp{//DIRED//} line above delimit
6347 these names: @file{f1}, @file{f2}, @file{sub}, @file{sub2}, @file{deeper},
6349 The offsets on the @samp{//SUBDIRED//} line delimit the following
6350 directory names: @file{a}, @file{a/sub}, @file{a/sub/deeper}, @file{a/sub2}.
6352 Here is an example of how to extract the fifth entry name, @samp{deeper},
6353 corresponding to the pair of offsets, 222 and 228:
6356 $ ls -gloRF --dired a > out
6357 $ dd bs=1 skip=222 count=6 < out 2>/dev/null; echo
6361 Note that although the listing above includes a trailing slash
6362 for the @samp{deeper} entry, the offsets select the name without
6363 the trailing slash. However, if you invoke @command{ls} with @option{--dired}
6364 along with an option like @option{--escape} (aka @option{-b}) and operate
6365 on a file whose name contains special characters, notice that the backslash
6370 $ ls -blog --dired 'a b'
6371 -rw-r--r-- 1 0 Jun 10 12:28 a\ b
6373 //DIRED-OPTIONS// --quoting-style=escape
6376 If you use a quoting style that adds quote marks
6377 (e.g., @option{--quoting-style=c}), then the offsets include the quote marks.
6378 So beware that the user may select the quoting style via the environment
6379 variable @env{QUOTING_STYLE}. Hence, applications using @option{--dired}
6380 should either specify an explicit @option{--quoting-style=literal} option
6381 (aka @option{-N} or @option{--literal}) on the command line, or else be
6382 prepared to parse the escaped names.
6385 @opindex --full-time
6386 Produce long format directory listings, and list times in full. It is
6387 equivalent to using @option{--format=long} with
6388 @option{--time-style=full-iso} (@pxref{Formatting file timestamps}).
6392 Produce long format directory listings, but don't display owner information.
6398 Inhibit display of group information in a long format directory listing.
6399 (This is the default in some non-@sc{gnu} versions of @command{ls}, so we
6400 provide this option for compatibility.)
6408 @cindex inode number, printing
6409 Print the inode number (also called the file serial number and index
6410 number) of each file to the left of the file name. (This number
6411 uniquely identifies each file within a particular file system.)
6414 @itemx --format=long
6415 @itemx --format=verbose
6418 @opindex long ls @r{format}
6419 @opindex verbose ls @r{format}
6420 In addition to the name of each file, print the file type, file mode bits,
6421 number of hard links, owner name, group name, size, and
6422 timestamp (@pxref{Formatting file timestamps}), normally
6423 the modification time. Print question marks for information that
6424 cannot be determined.
6426 Normally the size is printed as a byte count without punctuation, but
6427 this can be overridden (@pxref{Block size}). For example, @option{-h}
6428 prints an abbreviated, human-readable count, and
6429 @samp{--block-size="'1"} prints a byte count with the thousands
6430 separator of the current locale.
6432 For each directory that is listed, preface the files with a line
6433 @samp{total @var{blocks}}, where @var{blocks} is the total disk allocation
6434 for all files in that directory. The block size currently defaults to 1024
6435 bytes, but this can be overridden (@pxref{Block size}).
6436 The @var{blocks} computed counts each hard link separately;
6437 this is arguably a deficiency.
6439 The file type is one of the following characters:
6441 @c The commented-out entries are ones we're not sure about.
6449 character special file
6451 high performance (``contiguous data'') file
6455 door (Solaris 2.5 and up)
6457 @c semaphore, if this is a distinct file type
6461 @c multiplexed file (7th edition Unix; obsolete)
6463 off-line (``migrated'') file (Cray DMF)
6465 network special file (HP-UX)
6469 port (Solaris 10 and up)
6471 @c message queue, if this is a distinct file type
6475 @c shared memory object, if this is a distinct file type
6477 @c typed memory object, if this is a distinct file type
6479 @c whiteout (4.4BSD; not implemented)
6481 some other file type
6484 @cindex permissions, output by @command{ls}
6485 The file mode bits listed are similar to symbolic mode specifications
6486 (@pxref{Symbolic Modes}). But @command{ls} combines multiple bits into the
6487 third character of each set of permissions as follows:
6491 If the set-user-ID or set-group-ID bit and the corresponding executable bit
6495 If the set-user-ID or set-group-ID bit is set but the corresponding
6496 executable bit is not set.
6499 If the restricted deletion flag or sticky bit, and the
6500 other-executable bit, are both set. The restricted deletion flag is
6501 another name for the sticky bit. @xref{Mode Structure}.
6504 If the restricted deletion flag or sticky bit is set but the
6505 other-executable bit is not set.
6508 If the executable bit is set and none of the above apply.
6514 Following the file mode bits is a single character that specifies
6515 whether an alternate access method such as an access control list
6516 applies to the file. When the character following the file mode bits is a
6517 space, there is no alternate access method. When it is a printing
6518 character, then there is such a method.
6520 GNU @command{ls} uses a @samp{.} character to indicate a file
6521 with an SELinux security context, but no other alternate access method.
6523 A file with any other combination of alternate access methods
6524 is marked with a @samp{+} character.
6527 @itemx --numeric-uid-gid
6529 @opindex --numeric-uid-gid
6530 @cindex numeric uid and gid
6531 @cindex numeric user and group IDs
6532 Produce long format directory listings, but
6533 display numeric user and group IDs instead of the owner and group names.
6537 Produce long format directory listings, but don't display group information.
6538 It is equivalent to using @option{--format=long} with @option{--no-group} .
6544 @cindex disk allocation
6545 @cindex size of files, reporting
6546 Print the disk allocation of each file to the left of the file name.
6547 This is the amount of disk space used by the file, which is usually a
6548 bit more than the file's size, but it can be less if the file has holes.
6550 Normally the disk allocation is printed in units of
6551 1024 bytes, but this can be overridden (@pxref{Block size}).
6553 @cindex NFS mounts from BSD to HP-UX
6554 For files that are NFS-mounted from an HP-UX system to a BSD system,
6555 this option reports sizes that are half the correct values. On HP-UX
6556 systems, it reports sizes that are twice the correct values for files
6557 that are NFS-mounted from BSD systems. This is due to a flaw in HP-UX;
6558 it also affects the HP-UX @command{ls} program.
6567 @cindex security context
6568 Display the SELinux security context or @samp{?} if none is found.
6569 When used with the @option{-l} option, print the security context
6570 to the left of the size column.
6575 @node Sorting the output
6576 @subsection Sorting the output
6578 @cindex sorting @command{ls} output
6579 These options change the order in which @command{ls} sorts the information
6580 it outputs. By default, sorting is done by character code
6581 (e.g., @acronym{ASCII} order).
6587 @itemx --time=status
6590 @opindex ctime@r{, printing or sorting by}
6591 @opindex status time@r{, printing or sorting by}
6592 @opindex use time@r{, printing or sorting files by}
6593 If the long listing format (e.g., @option{-l}, @option{-o}) is being used,
6594 print the status change time (the @samp{ctime} in the inode) instead of
6595 the modification time.
6596 When explicitly sorting by time (@option{--sort=time} or @option{-t})
6597 or when not using a long listing format,
6598 sort according to the status change time.
6602 @cindex unsorted directory listing
6603 @cindex directory order, listing by
6604 Primarily, like @option{-U}---do not sort; list the files in whatever
6605 order they are stored in the directory. But also enable @option{-a} (list
6606 all files) and disable @option{-l}, @option{--color}, and @option{-s} (if they
6607 were specified before the @option{-f}).
6613 @cindex reverse sorting
6614 Reverse whatever the sorting method is---e.g., list files in reverse
6615 alphabetical order, youngest first, smallest first, or whatever.
6621 @opindex size of files@r{, sorting files by}
6622 Sort by file size, largest first.
6628 @opindex modification time@r{, sorting files by}
6629 Sort by modification time (the @samp{mtime} in the inode), newest first.
6633 @itemx --time=access
6637 @opindex use time@r{, printing or sorting files by}
6638 @opindex atime@r{, printing or sorting files by}
6639 @opindex access time@r{, printing or sorting files by}
6640 If the long listing format (e.g., @option{--format=long}) is being used,
6641 print the last access time (the @samp{atime} in the inode).
6642 When explicitly sorting by time (@option{--sort=time} or @option{-t})
6643 or when not using a long listing format, sort according to the access time.
6649 @opindex none@r{, sorting option for @command{ls}}
6650 Do not sort; list the files in whatever order they are
6651 stored in the directory. (Do not do any of the other unrelated things
6652 that @option{-f} does.) This is especially useful when listing very large
6653 directories, since not doing any sorting can be noticeably faster.
6656 @itemx --sort=version
6659 @opindex version@r{, sorting option for @command{ls}}
6660 Sort by version name and number, lowest first. It behaves like a default
6661 sort, except that each sequence of decimal digits is treated numerically
6662 as an index/version number. (@xref{More details about version sort}.)
6665 @itemx --sort=extension
6668 @opindex extension@r{, sorting files by}
6669 Sort directory contents alphabetically by file extension (characters
6670 after the last @samp{.}); files with no extension are sorted first.
6675 @node More details about version sort
6676 @subsection More details about version sort
6678 The version sort takes into account the fact that file names frequently include
6679 indices or version numbers. Standard sorting functions usually do not produce
6680 the ordering that people expect because comparisons are made on a
6681 character-by-character basis. The version
6682 sort addresses this problem, and is especially useful when browsing
6683 directories that contain many files with indices/version numbers in their
6688 foo.zml-1.gz foo.zml-1.gz
6689 foo.zml-100.gz foo.zml-2.gz
6690 foo.zml-12.gz foo.zml-6.gz
6691 foo.zml-13.gz foo.zml-12.gz
6692 foo.zml-2.gz foo.zml-13.gz
6693 foo.zml-25.gz foo.zml-25.gz
6694 foo.zml-6.gz foo.zml-100.gz
6697 Version-sorted strings are compared such that if @var{ver1} and @var{ver2}
6698 are version numbers and @var{prefix} and @var{suffix} (@var{suffix} matching
6699 the regular expression @samp{(\.[A-Za-z~][A-Za-z0-9~]*)*}) are strings then
6700 @var{ver1} < @var{ver2} implies that the name composed of
6701 ``@var{prefix} @var{ver1} @var{suffix}'' sorts before
6702 ``@var{prefix} @var{ver2} @var{suffix}''.
6704 Note also that leading zeros of numeric parts are ignored:
6708 abc-1.007.tgz abc-1.01a.tgz
6709 abc-1.012b.tgz abc-1.007.tgz
6710 abc-1.01a.tgz abc-1.012b.tgz
6713 This functionality is implemented using gnulib's @code{filevercmp} function.
6714 One result of that implementation decision is that @samp{ls -v}
6715 and @samp{sort -V} do not use the locale category, @env{LC_COLLATE},
6716 which means non-numeric prefixes are sorted as if @env{LC_COLLATE} were set
6719 @node General output formatting
6720 @subsection General output formatting
6722 These options affect the appearance of the overall output.
6727 @itemx --format=single-column
6730 @opindex single-column @r{output of files}
6731 List one file per line. This is the default for @command{ls} when standard
6732 output is not a terminal.
6735 @itemx --format=vertical
6738 @opindex vertical @r{sorted files in columns}
6739 List files in columns, sorted vertically. This is the default for
6740 @command{ls} if standard output is a terminal. It is always the default
6741 for the @command{dir} program.
6742 @sc{gnu} @command{ls} uses variable width columns to display as many files as
6743 possible in the fewest lines.
6745 @item --color [=@var{when}]
6747 @cindex color, distinguishing file types with
6748 Specify whether to use color for distinguishing file types. @var{when}
6749 may be omitted, or one of:
6752 @vindex none @r{color option}
6753 - Do not use color at all. This is the default.
6755 @vindex auto @r{color option}
6756 @cindex terminal, using color iff
6757 - Only use color if standard output is a terminal.
6759 @vindex always @r{color option}
6762 Specifying @option{--color} and no @var{when} is equivalent to
6763 @option{--color=always}.
6764 Piping a colorized listing through a pager like @command{more} or
6765 @command{less} usually produces unreadable results. However, using
6766 @code{more -f} does seem to work.
6770 @itemx --indicator-style=classify
6773 @opindex --indicator-style
6774 @cindex file type and executables, marking
6775 @cindex executables and file type, marking
6776 Append a character to each file name indicating the file type. Also,
6777 for regular files that are executable, append @samp{*}. The file type
6778 indicators are @samp{/} for directories, @samp{@@} for symbolic links,
6779 @samp{|} for FIFOs, @samp{=} for sockets, @samp{>} for doors,
6780 and nothing for regular files.
6781 @c The following sentence is the same as the one for -d.
6782 Do not follow symbolic links listed on the
6783 command line unless the @option{--dereference-command-line} (@option{-H}),
6784 @option{--dereference} (@option{-L}), or
6785 @option{--dereference-command-line-symlink-to-dir} options are specified.
6788 @itemx --indicator-style=file-type
6789 @opindex --file-type
6790 @opindex --indicator-style
6791 @cindex file type, marking
6792 Append a character to each file name indicating the file type. This is
6793 like @option{-F}, except that executables are not marked.
6795 @item --indicator-style=@var{word}
6796 @opindex --indicator-style
6797 Append a character indicator with style @var{word} to entry names,
6802 Do not append any character indicator; this is the default.
6804 Append @samp{/} for directories. This is the same as the @option{-p}
6807 Append @samp{/} for directories, @samp{@@} for symbolic links, @samp{|}
6808 for FIFOs, @samp{=} for sockets, and nothing for regular files. This is
6809 the same as the @option{--file-type} option.
6811 Append @samp{*} for executable regular files, otherwise behave as for
6812 @samp{file-type}. This is the same as the @option{-F} or
6813 @option{--classify} option.
6818 Print file sizes in 1024-byte blocks, overriding the default block
6819 size (@pxref{Block size}).
6820 This option is equivalent to @option{--block-size=1K}.
6823 @itemx --format=commas
6826 @opindex commas@r{, outputting between files}
6827 List files horizontally, with as many as will fit on each line,
6828 separated by @samp{, } (a comma and a space).
6831 @itemx --indicator-style=slash
6833 @opindex --indicator-style
6834 @cindex file type, marking
6835 Append a @samp{/} to directory names.
6838 @itemx --format=across
6839 @itemx --format=horizontal
6842 @opindex across@r{, listing files}
6843 @opindex horizontal@r{, listing files}
6844 List the files in columns, sorted horizontally.
6847 @itemx --tabsize=@var{cols}
6850 Assume that each tab stop is @var{cols} columns wide. The default is 8.
6851 @command{ls} uses tabs where possible in the output, for efficiency. If
6852 @var{cols} is zero, do not use tabs at all.
6854 @c FIXME: remove in 2009, if Apple Terminal has been fixed for long enough.
6855 Some terminal emulators (at least Apple Terminal 1.5 (133) from Mac OS X 10.4.8)
6856 do not properly align columns to the right of a TAB following a
6857 non-@acronym{ASCII} byte. If you use such a terminal emulator, use the
6858 @option{-T0} option or put @code{TABSIZE=0} in your environment to tell
6859 @command{ls} to align using spaces, not tabs.
6862 @itemx --width=@var{cols}
6866 Assume the screen is @var{cols} columns wide. The default is taken
6867 from the terminal settings if possible; otherwise the environment
6868 variable @env{COLUMNS} is used if it is set; otherwise the default
6874 @node Formatting file timestamps
6875 @subsection Formatting file timestamps
6877 By default, file timestamps are listed in abbreviated form. Most
6878 locales use a timestamp like @samp{2002-03-30 23:45}. However, the
6879 default @acronym{POSIX} locale uses a date like @samp{Mar 30@ @ 2002}
6880 for non-recent timestamps, and a date-without-year and time like
6881 @samp{Mar 30 23:45} for recent timestamps.
6883 A timestamp is considered to be @dfn{recent} if it is less than six
6884 months old, and is not dated in the future. If a timestamp dated
6885 today is not listed in recent form, the timestamp is in the future,
6886 which means you probably have clock skew problems which may break
6887 programs like @command{make} that rely on file timestamps.
6890 Time stamps are listed according to the time zone rules specified by
6891 the @env{TZ} environment variable, or by the system default rules if
6892 @env{TZ} is not set. @xref{TZ Variable,, Specifying the Time Zone
6893 with @env{TZ}, libc, The GNU C Library Reference Manual}.
6895 The following option changes how file timestamps are printed.
6898 @item --time-style=@var{style}
6899 @opindex --time-style
6901 List timestamps in style @var{style}. The @var{style} should
6902 be one of the following:
6907 List timestamps using @var{format}, where @var{format} is interpreted
6908 like the format argument of @command{date} (@pxref{date invocation}).
6909 For example, @option{--time-style="+%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S"} causes
6910 @command{ls} to list timestamps like @samp{2002-03-30 23:45:56}. As
6911 with @command{date}, @var{format}'s interpretation is affected by the
6912 @env{LC_TIME} locale category.
6914 If @var{format} contains two format strings separated by a newline,
6915 the former is used for non-recent files and the latter for recent
6916 files; if you want output columns to line up, you may need to insert
6917 spaces in one of the two formats.
6920 List timestamps in full using @acronym{ISO} 8601 date, time, and time zone
6921 format with nanosecond precision, e.g., @samp{2002-03-30
6922 23:45:56.477817180 -0700}. This style is equivalent to
6923 @samp{+%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S.%N %z}.
6925 This is useful because the time output includes all the information that
6926 is available from the operating system. For example, this can help
6927 explain @command{make}'s behavior, since @acronym{GNU} @command{make}
6928 uses the full timestamp to determine whether a file is out of date.
6931 List @acronym{ISO} 8601 date and time in minutes, e.g.,
6932 @samp{2002-03-30 23:45}. These timestamps are shorter than
6933 @samp{full-iso} timestamps, and are usually good enough for everyday
6934 work. This style is equivalent to @samp{+%Y-%m-%d %H:%M}.
6937 List @acronym{ISO} 8601 dates for non-recent timestamps (e.g.,
6938 @samp{2002-03-30@ }), and @acronym{ISO} 8601 month, day, hour, and
6939 minute for recent timestamps (e.g., @samp{03-30 23:45}). These
6940 timestamps are uglier than @samp{long-iso} timestamps, but they carry
6941 nearly the same information in a smaller space and their brevity helps
6942 @command{ls} output fit within traditional 80-column output lines.
6943 The following two @command{ls} invocations are equivalent:
6948 ls -l --time-style="+%Y-%m-%d $newline%m-%d %H:%M"
6949 ls -l --time-style="iso"
6954 List timestamps in a locale-dependent form. For example, a Finnish
6955 locale might list non-recent timestamps like @samp{maalis 30@ @ 2002}
6956 and recent timestamps like @samp{maalis 30 23:45}. Locale-dependent
6957 timestamps typically consume more space than @samp{iso} timestamps and
6958 are harder for programs to parse because locale conventions vary so
6959 widely, but they are easier for many people to read.
6961 The @env{LC_TIME} locale category specifies the timestamp format. The
6962 default @acronym{POSIX} locale uses timestamps like @samp{Mar 30@
6963 @ 2002} and @samp{Mar 30 23:45}; in this locale, the following two
6964 @command{ls} invocations are equivalent:
6969 ls -l --time-style="+%b %e %Y$newline%b %e %H:%M"
6970 ls -l --time-style="locale"
6973 Other locales behave differently. For example, in a German locale,
6974 @option{--time-style="locale"} might be equivalent to
6975 @option{--time-style="+%e. %b %Y $newline%e. %b %H:%M"}
6976 and might generate timestamps like @samp{30. M@"ar 2002@ } and
6977 @samp{30. M@"ar 23:45}.
6979 @item posix-@var{style}
6981 List @acronym{POSIX}-locale timestamps if the @env{LC_TIME} locale
6982 category is @acronym{POSIX}, @var{style} timestamps otherwise. For
6983 example, the @samp{posix-long-iso} style lists
6984 timestamps like @samp{Mar 30@ @ 2002} and @samp{Mar 30 23:45} when in
6985 the @acronym{POSIX} locale, and like @samp{2002-03-30 23:45} otherwise.
6990 You can specify the default value of the @option{--time-style} option
6991 with the environment variable @env{TIME_STYLE}; if @env{TIME_STYLE} is not set
6992 the default style is @samp{locale}. @acronym{GNU} Emacs 21.3 and
6993 later use the @option{--dired} option and therefore can parse any date
6994 format, but if you are using Emacs 21.1 or 21.2 and specify a
6995 non-@acronym{POSIX} locale you may need to set
6996 @samp{TIME_STYLE="posix-long-iso"}.
6998 To avoid certain denial-of-service attacks, timestamps that would be
6999 longer than 1000 bytes may be treated as errors.
7002 @node Formatting the file names
7003 @subsection Formatting the file names
7005 These options change how file names themselves are printed.
7011 @itemx --quoting-style=escape
7014 @opindex --quoting-style
7015 @cindex backslash sequences for file names
7016 Quote nongraphic characters in file names using alphabetic and octal
7017 backslash sequences like those used in C.
7021 @itemx --quoting-style=literal
7024 @opindex --quoting-style
7025 Do not quote file names. However, with @command{ls} nongraphic
7026 characters are still printed as question marks if the output is a
7027 terminal and you do not specify the @option{--show-control-chars}
7031 @itemx --hide-control-chars
7033 @opindex --hide-control-chars
7034 Print question marks instead of nongraphic characters in file names.
7035 This is the default if the output is a terminal and the program is
7040 @itemx --quoting-style=c
7042 @opindex --quote-name
7043 @opindex --quoting-style
7044 Enclose file names in double quotes and quote nongraphic characters as
7047 @item --quoting-style=@var{word}
7048 @opindex --quoting-style
7049 @cindex quoting style
7050 Use style @var{word} to quote file names and other strings that may
7051 contain arbitrary characters. The @var{word} should
7052 be one of the following:
7056 Output strings as-is; this is the same as the @option{-N} or
7057 @option{--literal} option.
7059 Quote strings for the shell if they contain shell metacharacters or would
7060 cause ambiguous output.
7061 The quoting is suitable for @acronym{POSIX}-compatible shells like
7062 @command{bash}, but it does not always work for incompatible shells
7065 Quote strings for the shell, even if they would normally not require quoting.
7067 Quote strings as for C character string literals, including the
7068 surrounding double-quote characters; this is the same as the
7069 @option{-Q} or @option{--quote-name} option.
7071 Quote strings as for C character string literals, except omit the
7072 surrounding double-quote
7073 characters; this is the same as the @option{-b} or @option{--escape} option.
7075 Quote strings as for C character string literals, except use
7076 surrounding quotation marks appropriate for the
7079 @c Use @t instead of @samp to avoid duplicate quoting in some output styles.
7080 Quote strings as for C character string literals, except use
7081 surrounding quotation marks appropriate for the locale, and quote
7082 @t{`like this'} instead of @t{"like
7083 this"} in the default C locale. This looks nicer on many displays.
7086 You can specify the default value of the @option{--quoting-style} option
7087 with the environment variable @env{QUOTING_STYLE}. If that environment
7088 variable is not set, the default value is @samp{literal}, but this
7089 default may change to @samp{shell} in a future version of this package.
7091 @item --show-control-chars
7092 @opindex --show-control-chars
7093 Print nongraphic characters as-is in file names.
7094 This is the default unless the output is a terminal and the program is
7100 @node dir invocation
7101 @section @command{dir}: Briefly list directory contents
7104 @cindex directory listing, brief
7106 @command{dir} is equivalent to @code{ls -C
7107 -b}; that is, by default files are listed in columns, sorted vertically,
7108 and special characters are represented by backslash escape sequences.
7110 @xref{ls invocation, @command{ls}}.
7113 @node vdir invocation
7114 @section @command{vdir}: Verbosely list directory contents
7117 @cindex directory listing, verbose
7119 @command{vdir} is equivalent to @code{ls -l
7120 -b}; that is, by default files are listed in long format and special
7121 characters are represented by backslash escape sequences.
7123 @node dircolors invocation
7124 @section @command{dircolors}: Color setup for @command{ls}
7128 @cindex setup for color
7130 @command{dircolors} outputs a sequence of shell commands to set up the
7131 terminal for color output from @command{ls} (and @command{dir}, etc.).
7135 eval "`dircolors [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]`"
7138 If @var{file} is specified, @command{dircolors} reads it to determine which
7139 colors to use for which file types and extensions. Otherwise, a
7140 precompiled database is used. For details on the format of these files,
7141 run @samp{dircolors --print-database}.
7143 To make @command{dircolors} read a @file{~/.dircolors} file if it
7144 exists, you can put the following lines in your @file{~/.bashrc} (or
7145 adapt them to your favorite shell):
7149 test -r $d && eval "$(dircolors $d)"
7153 @vindex SHELL @r{environment variable, and color}
7154 The output is a shell command to set the @env{LS_COLORS} environment
7155 variable. You can specify the shell syntax to use on the command line,
7156 or @command{dircolors} will guess it from the value of the @env{SHELL}
7157 environment variable.
7159 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
7164 @itemx --bourne-shell
7167 @opindex --bourne-shell
7168 @cindex Bourne shell syntax for color setup
7169 @cindex @command{sh} syntax for color setup
7170 Output Bourne shell commands. This is the default if the @env{SHELL}
7171 environment variable is set and does not end with @samp{csh} or
7180 @cindex C shell syntax for color setup
7181 @cindex @command{csh} syntax for color setup
7182 Output C shell commands. This is the default if @code{SHELL} ends with
7183 @command{csh} or @command{tcsh}.
7186 @itemx --print-database
7188 @opindex --print-database
7189 @cindex color database, printing
7190 @cindex database for color setup, printing
7191 @cindex printing color database
7192 Print the (compiled-in) default color configuration database. This
7193 output is itself a valid configuration file, and is fairly descriptive
7194 of the possibilities.
7201 @node Basic operations
7202 @chapter Basic operations
7204 @cindex manipulating files
7206 This chapter describes the commands for basic file manipulation:
7207 copying, moving (renaming), and deleting (removing).
7210 * cp invocation:: Copy files.
7211 * dd invocation:: Convert and copy a file.
7212 * install invocation:: Copy files and set attributes.
7213 * mv invocation:: Move (rename) files.
7214 * rm invocation:: Remove files or directories.
7215 * shred invocation:: Remove files more securely.
7220 @section @command{cp}: Copy files and directories
7223 @cindex copying files and directories
7224 @cindex files, copying
7225 @cindex directories, copying
7227 @command{cp} copies files (or, optionally, directories). The copy is
7228 completely independent of the original. You can either copy one file to
7229 another, or copy arbitrarily many files to a destination directory.
7233 cp [@var{option}]@dots{} [-T] @var{source} @var{dest}
7234 cp [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{source}@dots{} @var{directory}
7235 cp [@var{option}]@dots{} -t @var{directory} @var{source}@dots{}
7240 If two file names are given, @command{cp} copies the first file to the
7244 If the @option{--target-directory} (@option{-t}) option is given, or
7245 failing that if the last file is a directory and the
7246 @option{--no-target-directory} (@option{-T}) option is not given,
7247 @command{cp} copies each @var{source} file to the specified directory,
7248 using the @var{source}s' names.
7251 Generally, files are written just as they are read. For exceptions,
7252 see the @option{--sparse} option below.
7254 By default, @command{cp} does not copy directories. However, the
7255 @option{-R}, @option{-a}, and @option{-r} options cause @command{cp} to
7256 copy recursively by descending into source directories and copying files
7257 to corresponding destination directories.
7259 When copying from a symbolic link, @command{cp} normally follows the
7260 link only when not copying
7261 recursively. This default can be overridden with the
7262 @option{--archive} (@option{-a}), @option{-d}, @option{--dereference}
7263 (@option{-L}), @option{--no-dereference} (@option{-P}), and
7264 @option{-H} options. If more than one of these options is specified,
7265 the last one silently overrides the others.
7267 When copying to a symbolic link, @command{cp} follows the
7268 link only when it refers to an existing regular file.
7269 However, when copying to a dangling symbolic link, @command{cp}
7270 refuses by default, and fails with a diagnostic, since the operation
7271 is inherently dangerous. This behavior is contrary to historical
7272 practice and to @acronym{POSIX}.
7273 Set @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} to make @command{cp} attempt to create
7274 the target of a dangling destination symlink, in spite of the possible risk.
7275 Also, when an option like
7276 @option{--backup} or @option{--link} acts to rename or remove the
7277 destination before copying, @command{cp} renames or removes the
7278 symbolic link rather than the file it points to.
7280 By default, @command{cp} copies the contents of special files only
7281 when not copying recursively. This default can be overridden with the
7282 @option{--copy-contents} option.
7284 @cindex self-backups
7285 @cindex backups, making only
7286 @command{cp} generally refuses to copy a file onto itself, with the
7287 following exception: if @option{--force --backup} is specified with
7288 @var{source} and @var{dest} identical, and referring to a regular file,
7289 @command{cp} will make a backup file, either regular or numbered, as
7290 specified in the usual ways (@pxref{Backup options}). This is useful when
7291 you simply want to make a backup of an existing file before changing it.
7293 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
7300 Preserve as much as possible of the structure and attributes of the
7301 original files in the copy (but do not attempt to preserve internal
7302 directory structure; i.e., @samp{ls -U} may list the entries in a copied
7303 directory in a different order).
7304 Try to preserve SELinux security context and extended attributes (xattr),
7305 but ignore any failure to do that and print no corresponding diagnostic.
7306 Equivalent to @option{-dR --preserve=all} with the reduced diagnostics.
7309 @itemx @w{@kbd{--backup}[=@var{method}]}
7312 @vindex VERSION_CONTROL
7313 @cindex backups, making
7314 @xref{Backup options}.
7315 Make a backup of each file that would otherwise be overwritten or removed.
7316 As a special case, @command{cp} makes a backup of @var{source} when the force
7317 and backup options are given and @var{source} and @var{dest} are the same
7318 name for an existing, regular file. One useful application of this
7319 combination of options is this tiny Bourne shell script:
7323 # Usage: backup FILE...
7324 # Create a @sc{gnu}-style backup of each listed FILE.
7326 cp --backup --force -- "$i" "$i"
7330 @item --copy-contents
7331 @cindex directories, copying recursively
7332 @cindex copying directories recursively
7333 @cindex recursively copying directories
7334 @cindex non-directories, copying as special files
7335 If copying recursively, copy the contents of any special files (e.g.,
7336 FIFOs and device files) as if they were regular files. This means
7337 trying to read the data in each source file and writing it to the
7338 destination. It is usually a mistake to use this option, as it
7339 normally has undesirable effects on special files like FIFOs and the
7340 ones typically found in the @file{/dev} directory. In most cases,
7341 @code{cp -R --copy-contents} will hang indefinitely trying to read
7342 from FIFOs and special files like @file{/dev/console}, and it will
7343 fill up your destination disk if you use it to copy @file{/dev/zero}.
7344 This option has no effect unless copying recursively, and it does not
7345 affect the copying of symbolic links.
7349 @cindex symbolic links, copying
7350 @cindex hard links, preserving
7351 Copy symbolic links as symbolic links rather than copying the files that
7352 they point to, and preserve hard links between source files in the copies.
7353 Equivalent to @option{--no-dereference --preserve=links}.
7359 When copying without this option and an existing destination file cannot
7360 be opened for writing, the copy fails. However, with @option{--force}),
7361 when a destination file cannot be opened, @command{cp} then removes it and
7362 tries to open it again. Contrast this behavior with that enabled by
7363 @option{--link} and @option{--symbolic-link}, whereby the destination file
7364 is never opened but rather is removed unconditionally. Also see the
7365 description of @option{--remove-destination}.
7367 This option is independent of the @option{--interactive} or
7368 @option{-i} option: neither cancels the effect of the other.
7370 This option is redundant if the @option{--no-clobber} or @option{-n} option is
7375 If a command line argument specifies a symbolic link, then copy the
7376 file it points to rather than the symbolic link itself. However,
7377 copy (preserving its nature) any symbolic link that is encountered
7378 via recursive traversal.
7381 @itemx --interactive
7383 @opindex --interactive
7384 When copying a file other than a directory, prompt whether to
7385 overwrite an existing destination file. The @option{-i} option overrides
7386 a previous @option{-n} option.
7392 Make hard links instead of copies of non-directories.
7395 @itemx --dereference
7397 @opindex --dereference
7398 Follow symbolic links when copying from them.
7399 With this option, @command{cp} cannot create a symbolic link.
7400 For example, a symlink (to regular file) in the source tree will be copied to
7401 a regular file in the destination tree.
7406 @opindex --no-clobber
7407 Do not overwrite an existing file. The @option{-n} option overrides a previous
7408 @option{-i} option. This option is mutually exclusive with @option{-b} or
7409 @option{--backup} option.
7412 @itemx --no-dereference
7414 @opindex --no-dereference
7415 @cindex symbolic links, copying
7416 Copy symbolic links as symbolic links rather than copying the files that
7417 they point to. This option affects only symbolic links in the source;
7418 symbolic links in the destination are always followed if possible.
7421 @itemx @w{@kbd{--preserve}[=@var{attribute_list}]}
7424 @cindex file information, preserving, extended attributes, xattr
7425 Preserve the specified attributes of the original files.
7426 If specified, the @var{attribute_list} must be a comma-separated list
7427 of one or more of the following strings:
7431 Preserve the file mode bits and access control lists.
7433 Preserve the owner and group. On most modern systems,
7434 only users with appropriate privileges may change the owner of a file,
7436 may preserve the group ownership of a file only if they happen to be
7437 a member of the desired group.
7439 Preserve the times of last access and last modification, when possible.
7440 On older systems, it is not possible to preserve these attributes
7441 when the affected file is a symbolic link.
7442 However, many systems now provide the @code{utimensat} function,
7443 which makes it possible even for symbolic links.
7445 Preserve in the destination files
7446 any links between corresponding source files.
7447 Note that with @option{-L} or @option{-H}, this option can convert
7448 symbolic links to hard links. For example,
7450 $ mkdir c; : > a; ln -s a b; cp -aH a b c; ls -i1 c
7455 Note the inputs: @file{b} is a symlink to regular file @file{a},
7456 yet the files in destination directory, @file{c/}, are hard-linked.
7457 Since @option{-a} implies @option{--preserve=links}, and since @option{-H}
7458 tells @command{cp} to dereference command line arguments, it sees two files
7459 with the same inode number, and preserves the perceived hard link.
7461 Here is a similar example that exercises @command{cp}'s @option{-L} option:
7463 $ mkdir b c; (cd b; : > a; ln -s a b); cp -aL b c; ls -i1 c/b
7469 Preserve SELinux security context of the file. @command{cp} will fail
7470 if the preserving of SELinux security context is not succesful.
7472 Preserve extended attributes if @command{cp} is built with xattr support,
7473 and xattrs are supported and enabled on your file system.
7474 If SELinux context and/or ACLs are implemented using xattrs,
7475 they are preserved by this option as well.
7477 Preserve all file attributes.
7478 Equivalent to specifying all of the above, but with the difference
7479 that failure to preserve SELinux security context or extended attributes
7480 does not change @command{cp}'s exit status.
7481 @command{cp} does diagnose such failures.
7484 Using @option{--preserve} with no @var{attribute_list} is equivalent
7485 to @option{--preserve=mode,ownership,timestamps}.
7487 In the absence of this option, each destination file is created with the
7488 mode bits of the corresponding source file, minus the bits set in the
7489 umask and minus the set-user-ID and set-group-ID bits.
7490 @xref{File permissions}.
7492 @itemx @w{@kbd{--no-preserve}=@var{attribute_list}}
7493 @cindex file information, preserving
7494 Do not preserve the specified attributes. The @var{attribute_list}
7495 has the same form as for @option{--preserve}.
7499 @cindex parent directories and @command{cp}
7500 Form the name of each destination file by appending to the target
7501 directory a slash and the specified name of the source file. The last
7502 argument given to @command{cp} must be the name of an existing directory.
7503 For example, the command:
7506 cp --parents a/b/c existing_dir
7510 copies the file @file{a/b/c} to @file{existing_dir/a/b/c}, creating
7511 any missing intermediate directories.
7518 @opindex --recursive
7519 @cindex directories, copying recursively
7520 @cindex copying directories recursively
7521 @cindex recursively copying directories
7522 @cindex non-directories, copying as special files
7523 Copy directories recursively. By default, do not follow symbolic
7524 links in the source; see the @option{--archive} (@option{-a}), @option{-d},
7525 @option{--dereference} (@option{-L}), @option{--no-dereference}
7526 (@option{-P}), and @option{-H} options. Special files are copied by
7527 creating a destination file of the same type as the source; see the
7528 @option{--copy-contents} option. It is not portable to use
7529 @option{-r} to copy symbolic links or special files. On some
7530 non-@sc{gnu} systems, @option{-r} implies the equivalent of
7531 @option{-L} and @option{--copy-contents} for historical reasons.
7532 Also, it is not portable to use @option{-R} to copy symbolic links
7533 unless you also specify @option{-P}, as @acronym{POSIX} allows
7534 implementations that dereference symbolic links by default.
7536 @item --reflink[=@var{when}]
7537 @opindex --reflink[=@var{when}]
7540 @cindex copy on write
7541 Perform a lightweight, copy-on-write (COW) copy.
7542 Copying with this option can succeed only on some file systems.
7543 Once it has succeeded, beware that the source and destination files
7544 share the same disk data blocks as long as they remain unmodified.
7545 Thus, if a disk I/O error affects data blocks of one of the files,
7546 the other suffers the exact same fate.
7548 The @var{when} value can be one of the following:
7552 The default behavior: if the copy-on-write operation is not supported
7553 then report the failure for each file and exit with a failure status.
7556 If the copy-on-write operation is not supported then fall back
7557 to the standard copy behaviour.
7561 @item --remove-destination
7562 @opindex --remove-destination
7563 Remove each existing destination file before attempting to open it
7564 (contrast with @option{-f} above).
7566 @item --sparse=@var{when}
7567 @opindex --sparse=@var{when}
7568 @cindex sparse files, copying
7569 @cindex holes, copying files with
7570 @findex read @r{system call, and holes}
7571 A @dfn{sparse file} contains @dfn{holes}---a sequence of zero bytes that
7572 does not occupy any physical disk blocks; the @samp{read} system call
7573 reads these as zeros. This can both save considerable disk space and
7574 increase speed, since many binary files contain lots of consecutive zero
7575 bytes. By default, @command{cp} detects holes in input source files via a crude
7576 heuristic and makes the corresponding output file sparse as well.
7577 Only regular files may be sparse.
7579 The @var{when} value can be one of the following:
7583 The default behavior: if the input file is sparse, attempt to make
7584 the output file sparse, too. However, if an output file exists but
7585 refers to a non-regular file, then do not attempt to make it sparse.
7588 For each sufficiently long sequence of zero bytes in the input file,
7589 attempt to create a corresponding hole in the output file, even if the
7590 input file does not appear to be sparse.
7591 This is useful when the input file resides on a file system
7592 that does not support sparse files
7593 (for example, @samp{efs} file systems in SGI IRIX 5.3 and earlier),
7594 but the output file is on a type of file system that does support them.
7595 Holes may be created only in regular files, so if the destination file
7596 is of some other type, @command{cp} does not even try to make it sparse.
7599 Never make the output file sparse.
7600 This is useful in creating a file for use with the @command{mkswap} command,
7601 since such a file must not have any holes.
7604 @optStripTrailingSlashes
7607 @itemx --symbolic-link
7609 @opindex --symbolic-link
7610 @cindex symbolic links, copying with
7611 Make symbolic links instead of copies of non-directories. All source
7612 file names must be absolute (starting with @samp{/}) unless the
7613 destination files are in the current directory. This option merely
7614 results in an error message on systems that do not support symbolic links.
7620 @optNoTargetDirectory
7626 @cindex newer files, copying only
7627 Do not copy a non-directory that has an existing destination with the
7628 same or newer modification time. If time stamps are being preserved,
7629 the comparison is to the source time stamp truncated to the
7630 resolutions of the destination file system and of the system calls
7631 used to update time stamps; this avoids duplicate work if several
7632 @samp{cp -pu} commands are executed with the same source and
7639 Print the name of each file before copying it.
7642 @itemx --one-file-system
7644 @opindex --one-file-system
7645 @cindex file systems, omitting copying to different
7646 Skip subdirectories that are on different file systems from the one that
7647 the copy started on.
7648 However, mount point directories @emph{are} copied.
7656 @section @command{dd}: Convert and copy a file
7659 @cindex converting while copying a file
7661 @command{dd} copies a file (from standard input to standard output, by
7662 default) with a changeable I/O block size, while optionally performing
7663 conversions on it. Synopses:
7666 dd [@var{operand}]@dots{}
7670 The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.
7671 @xref{Common options}. @command{dd} accepts the following operands.
7677 Read from @var{file} instead of standard input.
7681 Write to @var{file} instead of standard output. Unless
7682 @samp{conv=notrunc} is given, @command{dd} truncates @var{file} to zero
7683 bytes (or the size specified with @samp{seek=}).
7685 @item ibs=@var{bytes}
7687 @cindex block size of input
7688 @cindex input block size
7689 Set the input block size to @var{bytes}.
7690 This makes @command{dd} read @var{bytes} per block.
7691 The default is 512 bytes.
7693 @item obs=@var{bytes}
7695 @cindex block size of output
7696 @cindex output block size
7697 Set the output block size to @var{bytes}.
7698 This makes @command{dd} write @var{bytes} per block.
7699 The default is 512 bytes.
7701 @item bs=@var{bytes}
7704 Set both input and output block sizes to @var{bytes}.
7705 This makes @command{dd} read and write @var{bytes} per block,
7706 overriding any @samp{ibs} and @samp{obs} settings.
7707 In addition, if no data-transforming @option{conv} option is specified,
7708 each input block is copied to the output as a single block,
7709 without aggregating short reads.
7711 @item cbs=@var{bytes}
7713 @cindex block size of conversion
7714 @cindex conversion block size
7715 @cindex fixed-length records, converting to variable-length
7716 @cindex variable-length records, converting to fixed-length
7717 Set the conversion block size to @var{bytes}.
7718 When converting variable-length records to fixed-length ones
7719 (@option{conv=block}) or the reverse (@option{conv=unblock}),
7720 use @var{bytes} as the fixed record length.
7722 @item skip=@var{blocks}
7724 Skip @var{blocks} @samp{ibs}-byte blocks in the input file before copying.
7726 @item seek=@var{blocks}
7728 Skip @var{blocks} @samp{obs}-byte blocks in the output file before copying.
7730 @item count=@var{blocks}
7732 Copy @var{blocks} @samp{ibs}-byte blocks from the input file, instead
7733 of everything until the end of the file.
7737 Do not print the overall transfer rate and volume statistics
7738 that normally make up the third status line when @command{dd} exits.
7740 @item conv=@var{conversion}[,@var{conversion}]@dots{}
7742 Convert the file as specified by the @var{conversion} argument(s).
7743 (No spaces around any comma(s).)
7750 @opindex ascii@r{, converting to}
7751 Convert @acronym{EBCDIC} to @acronym{ASCII},
7752 using the conversion table specified by @acronym{POSIX}.
7753 This provides a 1:1 translation for all 256 bytes.
7756 @opindex ebcdic@r{, converting to}
7757 Convert @acronym{ASCII} to @acronym{EBCDIC}.
7758 This is the inverse of the @samp{ascii} conversion.
7761 @opindex alternate ebcdic@r{, converting to}
7762 Convert @acronym{ASCII} to alternate @acronym{EBCDIC},
7763 using the alternate conversion table specified by @acronym{POSIX}.
7764 This is not a 1:1 translation, but reflects common historical practice
7765 for @samp{~}, @samp{[}, and @samp{]}.
7767 The @samp{ascii}, @samp{ebcdic}, and @samp{ibm} conversions are
7771 @opindex block @r{(space-padding)}
7772 For each line in the input, output @samp{cbs} bytes, replacing the
7773 input newline with a space and padding with spaces as necessary.
7777 Replace trailing spaces in each @samp{cbs}-sized input block with a
7780 The @samp{block} and @samp{unblock} conversions are mutually exclusive.
7783 @opindex lcase@r{, converting to}
7784 Change uppercase letters to lowercase.
7787 @opindex ucase@r{, converting to}
7788 Change lowercase letters to uppercase.
7790 The @samp{lcase} and @samp{ucase} conversions are mutually exclusive.
7793 @opindex swab @r{(byte-swapping)}
7794 @cindex byte-swapping
7795 Swap every pair of input bytes. @sc{gnu} @command{dd}, unlike others, works
7796 when an odd number of bytes are read---the last byte is simply copied
7797 (since there is nothing to swap it with).
7801 @cindex read errors, ignoring
7802 Continue after read errors.
7806 @cindex creating output file, avoiding
7807 Do not create the output file; the output file must already exist.
7811 @cindex creating output file, requiring
7812 Fail if the output file already exists; @command{dd} must create the
7815 The @samp{excl} and @samp{nocreat} conversions are mutually exclusive.
7819 @cindex truncating output file, avoiding
7820 Do not truncate the output file.
7823 @opindex sync @r{(padding with @acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul}s)}
7824 Pad every input block to size of @samp{ibs} with trailing zero bytes.
7825 When used with @samp{block} or @samp{unblock}, pad with spaces instead of
7830 @cindex synchronized data writes, before finishing
7831 Synchronize output data just before finishing. This forces a physical
7832 write of output data.
7836 @cindex synchronized data and metadata writes, before finishing
7837 Synchronize output data and metadata just before finishing. This
7838 forces a physical write of output data and metadata.
7842 @item iflag=@var{flag}[,@var{flag}]@dots{}
7844 Access the input file using the flags specified by the @var{flag}
7845 argument(s). (No spaces around any comma(s).)
7847 @item oflag=@var{flag}[,@var{flag}]@dots{}
7849 Access the output file using the flags specified by the @var{flag}
7850 argument(s). (No spaces around any comma(s).)
7852 Here are the flags. Not every flag is supported on every operating
7859 @cindex appending to the output file
7860 Write in append mode, so that even if some other process is writing to
7861 this file, every @command{dd} write will append to the current
7862 contents of the file. This flag makes sense only for output.
7863 If you combine this flag with the @samp{of=@var{file}} operand,
7864 you should also specify @samp{conv=notrunc} unless you want the
7865 output file to be truncated before being appended to.
7869 @cindex concurrent I/O
7870 Use concurrent I/O mode for data. This mode performs direct I/O
7871 and drops the @acronym{POSIX} requirement to serialize all I/O to the same file.
7872 A file cannot be opened in CIO mode and with a standard open at the
7878 Use direct I/O for data, avoiding the buffer cache.
7879 Note that the kernel may impose restrictions on read or write buffer sizes.
7880 For example, with an ext4 destination file system and a linux-based kernel,
7881 using @samp{oflag=direct} will cause writes to fail with @code{EINVAL} if the
7882 output buffer size is not a multiple of 512.
7886 @cindex directory I/O
7888 Fail unless the file is a directory. Most operating systems do not
7889 allow I/O to a directory, so this flag has limited utility.
7893 @cindex synchronized data reads
7894 Use synchronized I/O for data. For the output file, this forces a
7895 physical write of output data on each write. For the input file,
7896 this flag can matter when reading from a remote file that has been
7897 written to synchronously by some other process. Metadata (e.g.,
7898 last-access and last-modified time) is not necessarily synchronized.
7902 @cindex synchronized data and metadata I/O
7903 Use synchronized I/O for both data and metadata.
7907 @cindex nonblocking I/O
7908 Use non-blocking I/O.
7913 Do not update the file's access time.
7914 Some older file systems silently ignore this flag, so it is a good
7915 idea to test it on your files before relying on it.
7919 @cindex controlling terminal
7920 Do not assign the file to be a controlling terminal for @command{dd}.
7921 This has no effect when the file is not a terminal.
7922 On many hosts (e.g., @acronym{GNU}/Linux hosts), this option has no effect
7927 @cindex symbolic links, following
7928 Do not follow symbolic links.
7933 Fail if the file has multiple hard links.
7938 Use binary I/O. This option has an effect only on nonstandard
7939 platforms that distinguish binary from text I/O.
7944 Use text I/O. Like @samp{binary}, this option has no effect on
7949 Accumulate full blocks from input. The @code{read} system call
7950 may return early if a full block is not available.
7951 When that happens, continue calling @code{read} to fill the remainder
7953 This flag can be used only with @code{iflag}.
7957 These flags are not supported on all systems, and @samp{dd} rejects
7958 attempts to use them when they are not supported. When reading from
7959 standard input or writing to standard output, the @samp{nofollow} and
7960 @samp{noctty} flags should not be specified, and the other flags
7961 (e.g., @samp{nonblock}) can affect how other processes behave with the
7962 affected file descriptors, even after @command{dd} exits.
7966 @cindex multipliers after numbers
7967 The numeric-valued strings above (@var{bytes} and @var{blocks}) can be
7968 followed by a multiplier: @samp{b}=512, @samp{c}=1,
7969 @samp{w}=2, @samp{x@var{m}}=@var{m}, or any of the
7970 standard block size suffixes like @samp{k}=1024 (@pxref{Block size}).
7972 Use different @command{dd} invocations to use different block sizes for
7973 skipping and I/O@. For example, the following shell commands copy data
7974 in 512 KiB blocks between a disk and a tape, but do not save or restore a
7975 4 KiB label at the start of the disk:
7978 disk=/dev/rdsk/c0t1d0s2
7981 # Copy all but the label from disk to tape.
7982 (dd bs=4k skip=1 count=0 && dd bs=512k) <$disk >$tape
7984 # Copy from tape back to disk, but leave the disk label alone.
7985 (dd bs=4k seek=1 count=0 && dd bs=512k) <$tape >$disk
7988 Sending an @samp{INFO} signal to a running @command{dd}
7989 process makes it print I/O statistics to standard error
7990 and then resume copying. In the example below,
7991 @command{dd} is run in the background to copy 10 million blocks.
7992 The @command{kill} command makes it output intermediate I/O statistics,
7993 and when @command{dd} completes normally or is killed by the
7994 @code{SIGINT} signal, it outputs the final statistics.
7997 $ dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/null count=10MB & pid=$!
7998 $ kill -s INFO $pid; wait $pid
7999 3385223+0 records in
8000 3385223+0 records out
8001 1733234176 bytes (1.7 GB) copied, 6.42173 seconds, 270 MB/s
8002 10000000+0 records in
8003 10000000+0 records out
8004 5120000000 bytes (5.1 GB) copied, 18.913 seconds, 271 MB/s
8007 @vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
8008 On systems lacking the @samp{INFO} signal @command{dd} responds to the
8009 @samp{USR1} signal instead, unless the @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT}
8010 environment variable is set.
8015 @node install invocation
8016 @section @command{install}: Copy files and set attributes
8019 @cindex copying files and setting attributes
8021 @command{install} copies files while setting their file mode bits and, if
8022 possible, their owner and group. Synopses:
8025 install [@var{option}]@dots{} [-T] @var{source} @var{dest}
8026 install [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{source}@dots{} @var{directory}
8027 install [@var{option}]@dots{} -t @var{directory} @var{source}@dots{}
8028 install [@var{option}]@dots{} -d @var{directory}@dots{}
8033 If two file names are given, @command{install} copies the first file to the
8037 If the @option{--target-directory} (@option{-t}) option is given, or
8038 failing that if the last file is a directory and the
8039 @option{--no-target-directory} (@option{-T}) option is not given,
8040 @command{install} copies each @var{source} file to the specified
8041 directory, using the @var{source}s' names.
8044 If the @option{--directory} (@option{-d}) option is given,
8045 @command{install} creates each @var{directory} and any missing parent
8046 directories. Parent directories are created with mode
8047 @samp{u=rwx,go=rx} (755), regardless of the @option{-m} option or the
8048 current umask. @xref{Directory Setuid and Setgid}, for how the
8049 set-user-ID and set-group-ID bits of parent directories are inherited.
8052 @cindex Makefiles, installing programs in
8053 @command{install} is similar to @command{cp}, but allows you to control the
8054 attributes of destination files. It is typically used in Makefiles to
8055 copy programs into their destination directories. It refuses to copy
8056 files onto themselves.
8058 @cindex extended attributes, xattr
8059 @command{install} never preserves extended attributes (xattr).
8061 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
8071 Compare each pair of source and destination files, and if the destination has
8072 identical content and any specified owner, group, permissions, and possibly
8073 SELinux context, then do not modify the destination at all.
8077 Ignored; for compatibility with old Unix versions of @command{install}.
8081 Create any missing parent directories of @var{dest},
8082 then copy @var{source} to @var{dest}.
8083 This option is ignored if a destination directory is specified
8084 via @option{--target-directory=DIR}.
8089 @opindex --directory
8090 @cindex directories, creating with given attributes
8091 @cindex parent directories, creating missing
8092 @cindex leading directories, creating missing
8093 Create any missing parent directories, giving them the default
8094 attributes. Then create each given directory, setting their owner,
8095 group and mode as given on the command line or to the defaults.
8097 @item -g @var{group}
8098 @itemx --group=@var{group}
8101 @cindex group ownership of installed files, setting
8102 Set the group ownership of installed files or directories to
8103 @var{group}. The default is the process's current group. @var{group}
8104 may be either a group name or a numeric group ID.
8107 @itemx --mode=@var{mode}
8110 @cindex permissions of installed files, setting
8111 Set the file mode bits for the installed file or directory to @var{mode},
8112 which can be either an octal number, or a symbolic mode as in
8113 @command{chmod}, with @samp{a=} (no access allowed to anyone) as the
8114 point of departure (@pxref{File permissions}).
8115 The default mode is @samp{u=rwx,go=rx,a-s}---read, write, and
8116 execute for the owner, read and execute for group and other, and with
8117 set-user-ID and set-group-ID disabled.
8118 This default is not quite the same as @samp{755}, since it disables
8119 instead of preserving set-user-ID and set-group-ID on directories.
8120 @xref{Directory Setuid and Setgid}.
8122 @item -o @var{owner}
8123 @itemx --owner=@var{owner}
8126 @cindex ownership of installed files, setting
8127 @cindex appropriate privileges
8128 @vindex root @r{as default owner}
8129 If @command{install} has appropriate privileges (is run as root), set the
8130 ownership of installed files or directories to @var{owner}. The default
8131 is @code{root}. @var{owner} may be either a user name or a numeric user
8134 @item --preserve-context
8135 @opindex --preserve-context
8137 @cindex security context
8138 Preserve the SELinux security context of files and directories.
8139 Failure to preserve the context in all of the files or directories
8140 will result in an exit status of 1. If SELinux is disabled then
8141 print a warning and ignore the option.
8144 @itemx --preserve-timestamps
8146 @opindex --preserve-timestamps
8147 @cindex timestamps of installed files, preserving
8148 Set the time of last access and the time of last modification of each
8149 installed file to match those of each corresponding original file.
8150 When a file is installed without this option, its last access and
8151 last modification times are both set to the time of installation.
8152 This option is useful if you want to use the last modification times
8153 of installed files to keep track of when they were last built as opposed
8154 to when they were last installed.
8160 @cindex symbol table information, stripping
8161 @cindex stripping symbol table information
8162 Strip the symbol tables from installed binary executables.
8164 @itemx --strip-program=@var{program}
8165 @opindex --strip-program
8166 @cindex symbol table information, stripping, program
8167 Program used to strip binaries.
8173 @optNoTargetDirectory
8179 Print the name of each file before copying it.
8181 @item -Z @var{context}
8182 @itemx --context=@var{context}
8186 @cindex security context
8187 Set the default SELinux security context to be used for any
8188 created files and directories. If SELinux is disabled then
8189 print a warning and ignore the option.
8197 @section @command{mv}: Move (rename) files
8201 @command{mv} moves or renames files (or directories). Synopses:
8204 mv [@var{option}]@dots{} [-T] @var{source} @var{dest}
8205 mv [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{source}@dots{} @var{directory}
8206 mv [@var{option}]@dots{} -t @var{directory} @var{source}@dots{}
8211 If two file names are given, @command{mv} moves the first file to the
8215 If the @option{--target-directory} (@option{-t}) option is given, or
8216 failing that if the last file is a directory and the
8217 @option{--no-target-directory} (@option{-T}) option is not given,
8218 @command{mv} moves each @var{source} file to the specified
8219 directory, using the @var{source}s' names.
8222 @command{mv} can move any type of file from one file system to another.
8223 Prior to version @code{4.0} of the fileutils,
8224 @command{mv} could move only regular files between file systems.
8225 For example, now @command{mv} can move an entire directory hierarchy
8226 including special device files from one partition to another. It first
8227 uses some of the same code that's used by @code{cp -a} to copy the
8228 requested directories and files, then (assuming the copy succeeded)
8229 it removes the originals. If the copy fails, then the part that was
8230 copied to the destination partition is removed. If you were to copy
8231 three directories from one partition to another and the copy of the first
8232 directory succeeded, but the second didn't, the first would be left on
8233 the destination partition and the second and third would be left on the
8236 @cindex extended attributes, xattr
8237 @command{mv} always tries to copy extended attributes (xattr).
8239 @cindex prompting, and @command{mv}
8240 If a destination file exists but is normally unwritable, standard input
8241 is a terminal, and the @option{-f} or @option{--force} option is not given,
8242 @command{mv} prompts the user for whether to replace the file. (You might
8243 own the file, or have write permission on its directory.) If the
8244 response is not affirmative, the file is skipped.
8246 @emph{Warning}: Avoid specifying a source name with a trailing slash,
8247 when it might be a symlink to a directory.
8248 Otherwise, @command{mv} may do something very surprising, since
8249 its behavior depends on the underlying rename system call.
8250 On a system with a modern Linux-based kernel, it fails with @code{errno=ENOTDIR}.
8251 However, on other systems (at least FreeBSD 6.1 and Solaris 10) it silently
8252 renames not the symlink but rather the directory referenced by the symlink.
8253 @xref{Trailing slashes}.
8255 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
8265 @cindex prompts, omitting
8266 Do not prompt the user before removing a destination file.
8268 If you specify more than one of the @option{-i}, @option{-f}, @option{-n}
8269 options, only the final one takes effect.
8274 @itemx --interactive
8276 @opindex --interactive
8277 @cindex prompts, forcing
8278 Prompt whether to overwrite each existing destination file, regardless
8280 If the response is not affirmative, the file is skipped.
8286 @opindex --no-clobber
8287 @cindex prompts, omitting
8288 Do not overwrite an existing file.
8290 This option is mutually exclusive with @option{-b} or @option{--backup} option.
8296 @cindex newer files, moving only
8297 Do not move a non-directory that has an existing destination with the
8298 same or newer modification time.
8299 If the move is across file system boundaries, the comparison is to the
8300 source time stamp truncated to the resolutions of the destination file
8301 system and of the system calls used to update time stamps; this avoids
8302 duplicate work if several @samp{mv -u} commands are executed with the
8303 same source and destination.
8309 Print the name of each file before moving it.
8311 @optStripTrailingSlashes
8317 @optNoTargetDirectory
8325 @section @command{rm}: Remove files or directories
8328 @cindex removing files or directories
8330 @command{rm} removes each given @var{file}. By default, it does not remove
8331 directories. Synopsis:
8334 rm [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
8337 @cindex prompting, and @command{rm}
8338 If the @option{-I} or @option{--interactive=once} option is given,
8339 and there are more than three files or the @option{-r}, @option{-R},
8340 or @option{--recursive} are given, then @command{rm} prompts the user
8341 for whether to proceed with the entire operation. If the response is
8342 not affirmative, the entire command is aborted.
8344 Otherwise, if a file is unwritable, standard input is a terminal, and
8345 the @option{-f} or @option{--force} option is not given, or the
8346 @option{-i} or @option{--interactive=always} option @emph{is} given,
8347 @command{rm} prompts the user for whether to remove the file.
8348 If the response is not affirmative, the file is skipped.
8350 Any attempt to remove a file whose last file name component is
8351 @file{.} or @file{..} is rejected without any prompting.
8353 @emph{Warning}: If you use @command{rm} to remove a file, it is usually
8354 possible to recover the contents of that file. If you want more assurance
8355 that the contents are truly unrecoverable, consider using @command{shred}.
8357 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
8365 Ignore nonexistent files and never prompt the user.
8366 Ignore any previous @option{--interactive} (@option{-i}) option.
8370 Prompt whether to remove each file.
8371 If the response is not affirmative, the file is skipped.
8372 Ignore any previous @option{--force} (@option{-f}) option.
8373 Equivalent to @option{--interactive=always}.
8377 Prompt once whether to proceed with the command, if more than three
8378 files are named or if a recursive removal is requested. Ignore any
8379 previous @option{--force} (@option{-f}) option. Equivalent to
8380 @option{--interactive=once}.
8382 @itemx --interactive [=@var{when}]
8383 @opindex --interactive
8384 Specify when to issue an interactive prompt. @var{when} may be
8388 @vindex never @r{interactive option}
8389 - Do not prompt at all.
8391 @vindex once @r{interactive option}
8392 - Prompt once if more than three files are named or if a recursive
8393 removal is requested. Equivalent to @option{-I}.
8395 @vindex always @r{interactive option}
8396 - Prompt for every file being removed. Equivalent to @option{-i}.
8398 @option{--interactive} with no @var{when} is equivalent to
8399 @option{--interactive=always}.
8401 @itemx --one-file-system
8402 @opindex --one-file-system
8403 @cindex one file system, restricting @command{rm} to
8404 When removing a hierarchy recursively, skip any directory that is on a
8405 file system different from that of the corresponding command line argument.
8407 This option is useful when removing a build ``chroot'' hierarchy,
8408 which normally contains no valuable data. However, it is not uncommon
8409 to bind-mount @file{/home} into such a hierarchy, to make it easier to
8410 use one's start-up file. The catch is that it's easy to forget to
8411 unmount @file{/home}. Then, when you use @command{rm -rf} to remove
8412 your normally throw-away chroot, that command will remove everything
8413 under @file{/home}, too.
8414 Use the @option{--one-file-system} option, and it will
8415 warn about and skip directories on other file systems.
8416 Of course, this will not save your @file{/home} if it and your
8417 chroot happen to be on the same file system.
8419 @itemx --preserve-root
8420 @opindex --preserve-root
8421 @cindex root directory, disallow recursive destruction
8422 Fail upon any attempt to remove the root directory, @file{/},
8423 when used with the @option{--recursive} option.
8424 This is the default behavior.
8425 @xref{Treating / specially}.
8427 @itemx --no-preserve-root
8428 @opindex --no-preserve-root
8429 @cindex root directory, allow recursive destruction
8430 Do not treat @file{/} specially when removing recursively.
8431 This option is not recommended unless you really want to
8432 remove all the files on your computer.
8433 @xref{Treating / specially}.
8440 @opindex --recursive
8441 @cindex directories, removing (recursively)
8442 Remove the listed directories and their contents recursively.
8448 Print the name of each file before removing it.
8452 @cindex files beginning with @samp{-}, removing
8453 @cindex @samp{-}, removing files beginning with
8454 One common question is how to remove files whose names begin with a
8455 @samp{-}. @sc{gnu} @command{rm}, like every program that uses the @code{getopt}
8456 function to parse its arguments, lets you use the @samp{--} option to
8457 indicate that all following arguments are non-options. To remove a file
8458 called @file{-f} in the current directory, you could type either:
8471 @opindex - @r{and Unix @command{rm}}
8472 The Unix @command{rm} program's use of a single @samp{-} for this purpose
8473 predates the development of the getopt standard syntax.
8478 @node shred invocation
8479 @section @command{shred}: Remove files more securely
8482 @cindex data, erasing
8483 @cindex erasing data
8485 @command{shred} overwrites devices or files, to help prevent even
8486 very expensive hardware from recovering the data.
8488 Ordinarily when you remove a file (@pxref{rm invocation}), the data is
8489 not actually destroyed. Only the index listing where the file is
8490 stored is destroyed, and the storage is made available for reuse.
8491 There are undelete utilities that will attempt to reconstruct the index
8492 and can bring the file back if the parts were not reused.
8494 On a busy system with a nearly-full drive, space can get reused in a few
8495 seconds. But there is no way to know for sure. If you have sensitive
8496 data, you may want to be sure that recovery is not possible by actually
8497 overwriting the file with non-sensitive data.
8499 However, even after doing that, it is possible to take the disk back
8500 to a laboratory and use a lot of sensitive (and expensive) equipment
8501 to look for the faint ``echoes'' of the original data underneath the
8502 overwritten data. If the data has only been overwritten once, it's not
8505 The best way to remove something irretrievably is to destroy the media
8506 it's on with acid, melt it down, or the like. For cheap removable media
8507 like floppy disks, this is the preferred method. However, hard drives
8508 are expensive and hard to melt, so the @command{shred} utility tries
8509 to achieve a similar effect non-destructively.
8511 This uses many overwrite passes, with the data patterns chosen to
8512 maximize the damage they do to the old data. While this will work on
8513 floppies, the patterns are designed for best effect on hard drives.
8514 For more details, see the source code and Peter Gutmann's paper
8515 @uref{http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/~pgut001/pubs/secure_del.html,
8516 @cite{Secure Deletion of Data from Magnetic and Solid-State Memory}},
8517 from the proceedings of the Sixth @acronym{USENIX} Security Symposium (San Jose,
8518 California, July 22--25, 1996).
8520 @strong{Please note} that @command{shred} relies on a very important assumption:
8521 that the file system overwrites data in place. This is the traditional
8522 way to do things, but many modern file system designs do not satisfy this
8523 assumption. Exceptions include:
8528 Log-structured or journaled file systems, such as those supplied with
8529 AIX and Solaris, and JFS, ReiserFS, XFS, Ext3 (in @code{data=journal} mode),
8530 BFS, NTFS, etc.@: when they are configured to journal @emph{data}.
8533 File systems that write redundant data and carry on even if some writes
8534 fail, such as RAID-based file systems.
8537 File systems that make snapshots, such as Network Appliance's NFS server.
8540 File systems that cache in temporary locations, such as NFS version 3
8544 Compressed file systems.
8547 In the particular case of ext3 file systems, the above disclaimer applies (and
8548 @command{shred} is thus of limited effectiveness) only in @code{data=journal}
8549 mode, which journals file data in addition to just metadata. In both
8550 the @code{data=ordered} (default) and @code{data=writeback} modes,
8551 @command{shred} works as usual. Ext3 journaling modes can be changed
8552 by adding the @code{data=something} option to the mount options for a
8553 particular file system in the @file{/etc/fstab} file, as documented in
8554 the mount man page (man mount).
8556 If you are not sure how your file system operates, then you should assume
8557 that it does not overwrite data in place, which means that shred cannot
8558 reliably operate on regular files in your file system.
8560 Generally speaking, it is more reliable to shred a device than a file,
8561 since this bypasses the problem of file system design mentioned above.
8562 However, even shredding devices is not always completely reliable. For
8563 example, most disks map out bad sectors invisibly to the application; if
8564 the bad sectors contain sensitive data, @command{shred} won't be able to
8567 @command{shred} makes no attempt to detect or report this problem, just as
8568 it makes no attempt to do anything about backups. However, since it is
8569 more reliable to shred devices than files, @command{shred} by default does
8570 not truncate or remove the output file. This default is more suitable
8571 for devices, which typically cannot be truncated and should not be
8574 Finally, consider the risk of backups and mirrors.
8575 File system backups and remote mirrors may contain copies of the
8576 file that cannot be removed, and that will allow a shredded file
8577 to be recovered later. So if you keep any data you may later want
8578 to destroy using @command{shred}, be sure that it is not backed up or mirrored.
8581 shred [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{file}[@dots{}]
8584 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
8592 @cindex force deletion
8593 Override file permissions if necessary to allow overwriting.
8596 @itemx -n @var{number}
8597 @itemx --iterations=@var{number}
8598 @opindex -n @var{number}
8599 @opindex --iterations=@var{number}
8600 @cindex iterations, selecting the number of
8601 By default, @command{shred} uses @value{SHRED_DEFAULT_PASSES} passes of
8602 overwrite. You can reduce this to save time, or increase it if you think it's
8603 appropriate. After 25 passes all of the internal overwrite patterns will have
8604 been used at least once.
8606 @item --random-source=@var{file}
8607 @opindex --random-source
8608 @cindex random source for shredding
8609 Use @var{file} as a source of random data used to overwrite and to
8610 choose pass ordering. @xref{Random sources}.
8612 @item -s @var{bytes}
8613 @itemx --size=@var{bytes}
8614 @opindex -s @var{bytes}
8615 @opindex --size=@var{bytes}
8616 @cindex size of file to shred
8617 Shred the first @var{bytes} bytes of the file. The default is to shred
8618 the whole file. @var{bytes} can be followed by a size specification like
8619 @samp{K}, @samp{M}, or @samp{G} to specify a multiple. @xref{Block size}.
8625 @cindex removing files after shredding
8626 After shredding a file, truncate it (if possible) and then remove it.
8627 If a file has multiple links, only the named links will be removed.
8633 Display to standard error all status updates as sterilization proceeds.
8639 By default, @command{shred} rounds the size of a regular file up to the next
8640 multiple of the file system block size to fully erase the last block of the file.
8641 Use @option{--exact} to suppress that behavior.
8642 Thus, by default if you shred a 10-byte regular file on a system with 512-byte
8643 blocks, the resulting file will be 512 bytes long. With this option,
8644 shred does not increase the apparent size of the file.
8650 Normally, the last pass that @command{shred} writes is made up of
8651 random data. If this would be conspicuous on your hard drive (for
8652 example, because it looks like encrypted data), or you just think
8653 it's tidier, the @option{--zero} option adds an additional overwrite pass with
8654 all zero bits. This is in addition to the number of passes specified
8655 by the @option{--iterations} option.
8659 You might use the following command to erase all trace of the
8660 file system you'd created on the floppy disk in your first drive.
8661 That command takes about 20 minutes to erase a ``1.44MB'' (actually
8665 shred --verbose /dev/fd0
8668 Similarly, to erase all data on a selected partition of
8669 your hard disk, you could give a command like this:
8672 shred --verbose /dev/sda5
8675 A @var{file} of @samp{-} denotes standard output.
8676 The intended use of this is to shred a removed temporary file.
8680 i=`tempfile -m 0600`
8683 echo "Hello, world" >&3
8688 However, the command @samp{shred - >file} does not shred the contents
8689 of @var{file}, since the shell truncates @var{file} before invoking
8690 @command{shred}. Use the command @samp{shred file} or (if using a
8691 Bourne-compatible shell) the command @samp{shred - 1<>file} instead.
8696 @node Special file types
8697 @chapter Special file types
8699 @cindex special file types
8700 @cindex file types, special
8702 This chapter describes commands which create special types of files (and
8703 @command{rmdir}, which removes directories, one special file type).
8705 @cindex special file types
8707 Although Unix-like operating systems have markedly fewer special file
8708 types than others, not @emph{everything} can be treated only as the
8709 undifferentiated byte stream of @dfn{normal files}. For example, when a
8710 file is created or removed, the system must record this information,
8711 which it does in a @dfn{directory}---a special type of file. Although
8712 you can read directories as normal files, if you're curious, in order
8713 for the system to do its job it must impose a structure, a certain
8714 order, on the bytes of the file. Thus it is a ``special'' type of file.
8716 Besides directories, other special file types include named pipes
8717 (FIFOs), symbolic links, sockets, and so-called @dfn{special files}.
8720 * link invocation:: Make a hard link via the link syscall
8721 * ln invocation:: Make links between files.
8722 * mkdir invocation:: Make directories.
8723 * mkfifo invocation:: Make FIFOs (named pipes).
8724 * mknod invocation:: Make block or character special files.
8725 * readlink invocation:: Print value of a symlink or canonical file name.
8726 * rmdir invocation:: Remove empty directories.
8727 * unlink invocation:: Remove files via the unlink syscall
8731 @node link invocation
8732 @section @command{link}: Make a hard link via the link syscall
8735 @cindex links, creating
8736 @cindex hard links, creating
8737 @cindex creating links (hard only)
8739 @command{link} creates a single hard link at a time.
8740 It is a minimalist interface to the system-provided
8741 @code{link} function. @xref{Hard Links, , , libc,
8742 The GNU C Library Reference Manual}.
8743 It avoids the bells and whistles of the more commonly-used
8744 @command{ln} command (@pxref{ln invocation}).
8748 link @var{filename} @var{linkname}
8751 @var{filename} must specify an existing file, and @var{linkname}
8752 must specify a nonexistent entry in an existing directory.
8753 @command{link} simply calls @code{link (@var{filename}, @var{linkname})}
8756 On a @acronym{GNU} system, this command acts like @samp{ln --directory
8757 --no-target-directory @var{filename} @var{linkname}}. However, the
8758 @option{--directory} and @option{--no-target-directory} options are
8759 not specified by @acronym{POSIX}, and the @command{link} command is
8760 more portable in practice.
8766 @section @command{ln}: Make links between files
8769 @cindex links, creating
8770 @cindex hard links, creating
8771 @cindex symbolic (soft) links, creating
8772 @cindex creating links (hard or soft)
8774 @cindex file systems and hard links
8775 @command{ln} makes links between files. By default, it makes hard links;
8776 with the @option{-s} option, it makes symbolic (or @dfn{soft}) links.
8780 ln [@var{option}]@dots{} [-T] @var{target} @var{linkname}
8781 ln [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{target}
8782 ln [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{target}@dots{} @var{directory}
8783 ln [@var{option}]@dots{} -t @var{directory} @var{target}@dots{}
8789 If two file names are given, @command{ln} creates a link to the first
8790 file from the second.
8793 If one @var{target} is given, @command{ln} creates a link to that file
8794 in the current directory.
8797 If the @option{--target-directory} (@option{-t}) option is given, or
8798 failing that if the last file is a directory and the
8799 @option{--no-target-directory} (@option{-T}) option is not given,
8800 @command{ln} creates a link to each @var{target} file in the specified
8801 directory, using the @var{target}s' names.
8805 Normally @command{ln} does not remove existing files. Use the
8806 @option{--force} (@option{-f}) option to remove them unconditionally,
8807 the @option{--interactive} (@option{-i}) option to remove them
8808 conditionally, and the @option{--backup} (@option{-b}) option to
8811 @cindex hard link, defined
8812 @cindex inode, and hard links
8813 A @dfn{hard link} is another name for an existing file; the link and the
8814 original are indistinguishable. Technically speaking, they share the
8815 same inode, and the inode contains all the information about a
8816 file---indeed, it is not incorrect to say that the inode @emph{is} the
8817 file. On all existing implementations, you cannot make a hard link to
8818 a directory, and hard links cannot cross file system boundaries. (These
8819 restrictions are not mandated by @acronym{POSIX}, however.)
8821 @cindex dereferencing symbolic links
8822 @cindex symbolic link, defined
8823 @dfn{Symbolic links} (@dfn{symlinks} for short), on the other hand, are
8824 a special file type (which not all kernels support: System V release 3
8825 (and older) systems lack symlinks) in which the link file actually
8826 refers to a different file, by name. When most operations (opening,
8827 reading, writing, and so on) are passed the symbolic link file, the
8828 kernel automatically @dfn{dereferences} the link and operates on the
8829 target of the link. But some operations (e.g., removing) work on the
8830 link file itself, rather than on its target. The owner, group, and
8831 mode of a symlink are not significant to file access performed through
8832 the link. @xref{Symbolic Links,,,
8833 libc, The GNU C Library Reference Manual}.
8835 Symbolic links can contain arbitrary strings; a @dfn{dangling symlink}
8836 occurs when the string in the symlink does not resolve to a file.
8837 There are no restrictions against creating dangling symbolic links.
8838 There are trade-offs to using absolute or relative symlinks. An
8839 absolute symlink always points to the same file, even if the directory
8840 containing the link is moved. However, if the symlink is visible from
8841 more than one machine (such as on a networked file system), the file
8842 pointed to might not always be the same. A relative symbolic link is
8843 resolved in relation to the directory that contains the link, and is
8844 often useful in referring to files on the same device without regards
8845 to what name that device is mounted on when accessed via networked
8848 When creating a relative symlink in a different location than the
8849 current directory, the resolution of the symlink will be different
8850 than the resolution of the same string from the current directory.
8851 Therefore, many users prefer to first change directories to the
8852 location where the relative symlink will be created, so that
8853 tab-completion or other file resolution will find the same target as
8854 what will be placed in the symlink.
8856 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
8867 @opindex --directory
8868 @cindex hard links to directories
8869 Allow users with appropriate privileges to attempt to make hard links
8871 However, note that this will probably fail due to
8872 system restrictions, even for the super-user.
8878 Remove existing destination files.
8881 @itemx --interactive
8883 @opindex --interactive
8884 @cindex prompting, and @command{ln}
8885 Prompt whether to remove existing destination files.
8888 @itemx --no-dereference
8890 @opindex --no-dereference
8891 Do not treat the last operand specially when it is a symbolic link to
8892 a directory. Instead, treat it as if it were a normal file.
8894 When the destination is an actual directory (not a symlink to one),
8895 there is no ambiguity. The link is created in that directory.
8896 But when the specified destination is a symlink to a directory,
8897 there are two ways to treat the user's request. @command{ln} can
8898 treat the destination just as it would a normal directory and create
8899 the link in it. On the other hand, the destination can be viewed as a
8900 non-directory---as the symlink itself. In that case, @command{ln}
8901 must delete or backup that symlink before creating the new link.
8902 The default is to treat a destination that is a symlink to a directory
8903 just like a directory.
8905 This option is weaker than the @option{--no-target-directory}
8906 (@option{-T}) option, so it has no effect if both options are given.
8912 Make symbolic links instead of hard links. This option merely produces
8913 an error message on systems that do not support symbolic links.
8919 @optNoTargetDirectory
8925 Print the name of each file after linking it successfully.
8936 # Create link ../a pointing to a in that directory.
8937 # Not really useful because it points to itself.
8942 # Change to the target before creating symlinks to avoid being confused.
8948 # Hard coded file names don't move well.
8949 ln -s $(pwd)/a /some/dir/
8953 # Relative file names survive directory moves and also
8954 # work across networked file systems.
8955 ln -s afile anotherfile
8956 ln -s ../adir/afile yetanotherfile
8960 @node mkdir invocation
8961 @section @command{mkdir}: Make directories
8964 @cindex directories, creating
8965 @cindex creating directories
8967 @command{mkdir} creates directories with the specified names. Synopsis:
8970 mkdir [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{name}@dots{}
8973 @command{mkdir} creates each directory @var{name} in the order given.
8974 It reports an error if @var{name} already exists, unless the
8975 @option{-p} option is given and @var{name} is a directory.
8977 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
8982 @itemx --mode=@var{mode}
8985 @cindex modes of created directories, setting
8986 Set the file permission bits of created directories to @var{mode},
8987 which uses the same syntax as
8988 in @command{chmod} and uses @samp{a=rwx} (read, write and execute allowed for
8989 everyone) for the point of the departure. @xref{File permissions}.
8991 Normally the directory has the desired file mode bits at the moment it
8992 is created. As a @acronym{GNU} extension, @var{mode} may also mention
8993 special mode bits, but in this case there may be a temporary window
8994 during which the directory exists but its special mode bits are
8995 incorrect. @xref{Directory Setuid and Setgid}, for how the
8996 set-user-ID and set-group-ID bits of directories are inherited unless
8997 overridden in this way.
9003 @cindex parent directories, creating
9004 Make any missing parent directories for each argument, setting their
9005 file permission bits to the umask modified by @samp{u+wx}. Ignore
9006 existing parent directories, and do not change their file permission
9009 To set the file permission bits of any newly-created parent
9010 directories to a value that includes @samp{u+wx}, you can set the
9011 umask before invoking @command{mkdir}. For example, if the shell
9012 command @samp{(umask u=rwx,go=rx; mkdir -p P/Q)} creates the parent
9013 @file{P} it sets the parent's permission bits to @samp{u=rwx,go=rx}.
9014 To set a parent's special mode bits as well, you can invoke
9015 @command{chmod} after @command{mkdir}. @xref{Directory Setuid and
9016 Setgid}, for how the set-user-ID and set-group-ID bits of
9017 newly-created parent directories are inherited.
9023 Print a message for each created directory. This is most useful with
9026 @item -Z @var{context}
9027 @itemx --context=@var{context}
9031 @cindex security context
9032 Set the default SELinux security context to be used for created directories.
9039 @node mkfifo invocation
9040 @section @command{mkfifo}: Make FIFOs (named pipes)
9043 @cindex FIFOs, creating
9044 @cindex named pipes, creating
9045 @cindex creating FIFOs (named pipes)
9047 @command{mkfifo} creates FIFOs (also called @dfn{named pipes}) with the
9048 specified names. Synopsis:
9051 mkfifo [@var{option}] @var{name}@dots{}
9054 A @dfn{FIFO} is a special file type that permits independent processes
9055 to communicate. One process opens the FIFO file for writing, and
9056 another for reading, after which data can flow as with the usual
9057 anonymous pipe in shells or elsewhere.
9059 The program accepts the following option. Also see @ref{Common options}.
9064 @itemx --mode=@var{mode}
9067 @cindex modes of created FIFOs, setting
9068 Set the mode of created FIFOs to @var{mode}, which is symbolic as in
9069 @command{chmod} and uses @samp{a=rw} (read and write allowed for everyone)
9070 for the point of departure. @var{mode} should specify only file
9071 permission bits. @xref{File permissions}.
9073 @item -Z @var{context}
9074 @itemx --context=@var{context}
9078 @cindex security context
9079 Set the default SELinux security context to be used for created FIFOs.
9086 @node mknod invocation
9087 @section @command{mknod}: Make block or character special files
9090 @cindex block special files, creating
9091 @cindex character special files, creating
9093 @command{mknod} creates a FIFO, character special file, or block special
9094 file with the specified name. Synopsis:
9097 mknod [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{name} @var{type} [@var{major} @var{minor}]
9100 @cindex special files
9101 @cindex block special files
9102 @cindex character special files
9103 Unlike the phrase ``special file type'' above, the term @dfn{special
9104 file} has a technical meaning on Unix: something that can generate or
9105 receive data. Usually this corresponds to a physical piece of hardware,
9106 e.g., a printer or a disk. (These files are typically created at
9107 system-configuration time.) The @command{mknod} command is what creates
9108 files of this type. Such devices can be read either a character at a
9109 time or a ``block'' (many characters) at a time, hence we say there are
9110 @dfn{block special} files and @dfn{character special} files.
9112 @c mknod is a shell built-in at least with OpenBSD's /bin/sh
9113 @mayConflictWithShellBuiltIn{mknod}
9115 The arguments after @var{name} specify the type of file to make:
9120 @opindex p @r{for FIFO file}
9124 @opindex b @r{for block special file}
9125 for a block special file
9128 @c Don't document the `u' option -- it's just a synonym for `c'.
9129 @c Do *any* versions of mknod still use it?
9131 @opindex c @r{for character special file}
9132 @c @opindex u @r{for character special file}
9133 for a character special file
9137 When making a block or character special file, the major and minor
9138 device numbers must be given after the file type.
9139 If a major or minor device number begins with @samp{0x} or @samp{0X},
9140 it is interpreted as hexadecimal; otherwise, if it begins with @samp{0},
9141 as octal; otherwise, as decimal.
9143 The program accepts the following option. Also see @ref{Common options}.
9148 @itemx --mode=@var{mode}
9151 Set the mode of created files to @var{mode}, which is symbolic as in
9152 @command{chmod} and uses @samp{a=rw} as the point of departure.
9153 @var{mode} should specify only file permission bits.
9154 @xref{File permissions}.
9156 @item -Z @var{context}
9157 @itemx --context=@var{context}
9161 @cindex security context
9162 Set the default SELinux security context to be used for created files.
9169 @node readlink invocation
9170 @section @command{readlink}: Print value of a symlink or canonical file name
9173 @cindex displaying value of a symbolic link
9174 @cindex canonical file name
9175 @cindex canonicalize a file name
9179 @command{readlink} may work in one of two supported modes:
9185 @command{readlink} outputs the value of the given symbolic link.
9186 If @command{readlink} is invoked with an argument other than the name
9187 of a symbolic link, it produces no output and exits with a nonzero exit code.
9189 @item Canonicalize mode
9191 @command{readlink} outputs the absolute name of the given file which contains
9192 no @file{.}, @file{..} components nor any repeated separators
9193 (@file{/}) or symbolic links.
9198 readlink [@var{option}] @var{file}
9201 By default, @command{readlink} operates in readlink mode.
9203 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
9208 @itemx --canonicalize
9210 @opindex --canonicalize
9211 Activate canonicalize mode.
9212 If any component of the file name except the last one is missing or unavailable,
9213 @command{readlink} produces no output and exits with a nonzero exit code.
9216 @itemx --canonicalize-existing
9218 @opindex --canonicalize-existing
9219 Activate canonicalize mode.
9220 If any component is missing or unavailable, @command{readlink} produces
9221 no output and exits with a nonzero exit code.
9224 @itemx --canonicalize-missing
9226 @opindex --canonicalize-missing
9227 Activate canonicalize mode.
9228 If any component is missing or unavailable, @command{readlink} treats it
9234 @opindex --no-newline
9235 Do not output the trailing newline.
9245 Suppress most error messages.
9251 Report error messages.
9255 The @command{readlink} utility first appeared in OpenBSD 2.1.
9257 There is a @command{realpath} command on some systems
9258 which operates like @command{readlink} in canonicalize mode.
9263 @node rmdir invocation
9264 @section @command{rmdir}: Remove empty directories
9267 @cindex removing empty directories
9268 @cindex directories, removing empty
9270 @command{rmdir} removes empty directories. Synopsis:
9273 rmdir [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{directory}@dots{}
9276 If any @var{directory} argument does not refer to an existing empty
9277 directory, it is an error.
9279 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
9283 @item --ignore-fail-on-non-empty
9284 @opindex --ignore-fail-on-non-empty
9285 @cindex directory deletion, ignoring failures
9286 Ignore each failure to remove a directory that is solely because
9287 the directory is non-empty.
9293 @cindex parent directories, removing
9294 Remove @var{directory}, then try to remove each component of @var{directory}.
9295 So, for example, @samp{rmdir -p a/b/c} is similar to @samp{rmdir a/b/c a/b a}.
9296 As such, it fails if any of those directories turns out not to be empty.
9297 Use the @option{--ignore-fail-on-non-empty} option to make it so such
9298 a failure does not evoke a diagnostic and does not cause @command{rmdir} to
9299 exit unsuccessfully.
9305 @cindex directory deletion, reporting
9306 Give a diagnostic for each successful removal.
9307 @var{directory} is removed.
9311 @xref{rm invocation}, for how to remove non-empty directories (recursively).
9316 @node unlink invocation
9317 @section @command{unlink}: Remove files via the unlink syscall
9320 @cindex removing files or directories (via the unlink syscall)
9322 @command{unlink} deletes a single specified file name.
9323 It is a minimalist interface to the system-provided
9324 @code{unlink} function. @xref{Deleting Files, , , libc,
9325 The GNU C Library Reference Manual}. Synopsis:
9326 It avoids the bells and whistles of the more commonly-used
9327 @command{rm} command (@pxref{rm invocation}).
9330 unlink @var{filename}
9333 On some systems @code{unlink} can be used to delete the name of a
9334 directory. On others, it can be used that way only by a privileged user.
9335 In the GNU system @code{unlink} can never delete the name of a directory.
9337 The @command{unlink} command honors the @option{--help} and
9338 @option{--version} options. To remove a file whose name begins with
9339 @samp{-}, prefix the name with @samp{./}, e.g., @samp{unlink ./--help}.
9344 @node Changing file attributes
9345 @chapter Changing file attributes
9347 @cindex changing file attributes
9348 @cindex file attributes, changing
9349 @cindex attributes, file
9351 A file is not merely its contents, a name, and a file type
9352 (@pxref{Special file types}). A file also has an owner (a user ID), a
9353 group (a group ID), permissions (what the owner can do with the file,
9354 what people in the group can do, and what everyone else can do), various
9355 timestamps, and other information. Collectively, we call these a file's
9358 These commands change file attributes.
9361 * chgrp invocation:: Change file groups.
9362 * chmod invocation:: Change access permissions.
9363 * chown invocation:: Change file owners and groups.
9364 * touch invocation:: Change file timestamps.
9368 @node chown invocation
9369 @section @command{chown}: Change file owner and group
9372 @cindex file ownership, changing
9373 @cindex group ownership, changing
9374 @cindex changing file ownership
9375 @cindex changing group ownership
9377 @command{chown} changes the user and/or group ownership of each given @var{file}
9378 to @var{new-owner} or to the user and group of an existing reference file.
9382 chown [@var{option}]@dots{} @{@var{new-owner} | --reference=@var{ref_file}@} @var{file}@dots{}
9385 If used, @var{new-owner} specifies the new owner and/or group as follows
9386 (with no embedded white space):
9389 [@var{owner}] [ : [@var{group}] ]
9396 If only an @var{owner} (a user name or numeric user ID) is given, that
9397 user is made the owner of each given file, and the files' group is not
9400 @item owner@samp{:}group
9401 If the @var{owner} is followed by a colon and a @var{group} (a
9402 group name or numeric group ID), with no spaces between them, the group
9403 ownership of the files is changed as well (to @var{group}).
9406 If a colon but no group name follows @var{owner}, that user is
9407 made the owner of the files and the group of the files is changed to
9408 @var{owner}'s login group.
9411 If the colon and following @var{group} are given, but the owner
9412 is omitted, only the group of the files is changed; in this case,
9413 @command{chown} performs the same function as @command{chgrp}.
9416 If only a colon is given, or if @var{new-owner} is empty, neither the
9417 owner nor the group is changed.
9421 If @var{owner} or @var{group} is intended to represent a numeric user
9422 or group ID, then you may specify it with a leading @samp{+}.
9423 @xref{Disambiguating names and IDs}.
9425 Some older scripts may still use @samp{.} in place of the @samp{:} separator.
9426 @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards conformance}) does not
9427 require support for that, but for backward compatibility @acronym{GNU}
9428 @command{chown} supports @samp{.} so long as no ambiguity results.
9429 New scripts should avoid the use of @samp{.} because it is not
9430 portable, and because it has undesirable results if the entire
9431 @var{owner@samp{.}group} happens to identify a user whose name
9434 The @command{chown} command sometimes clears the set-user-ID or
9435 set-group-ID permission bits. This behavior depends on the policy and
9436 functionality of the underlying @code{chown} system call, which may
9437 make system-dependent file mode modifications outside the control of
9438 the @command{chown} command. For example, the @command{chown} command
9439 might not affect those bits when invoked by a user with appropriate
9440 privileges, or when the
9441 bits signify some function other than executable permission (e.g.,
9443 When in doubt, check the underlying system behavior.
9445 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
9453 @cindex changed owners, verbosely describing
9454 Verbosely describe the action for each @var{file} whose ownership
9463 @cindex error messages, omitting
9464 Do not print error messages about files whose ownership cannot be
9467 @itemx @w{@kbd{--from}=@var{old-owner}}
9469 @cindex symbolic links, changing owner
9470 Change a @var{file}'s ownership only if it has current attributes specified
9471 by @var{old-owner}. @var{old-owner} has the same form as @var{new-owner}
9473 This option is useful primarily from a security standpoint in that
9474 it narrows considerably the window of potential abuse.
9475 For example, to reflect a user ID numbering change for one user's files
9476 without an option like this, @code{root} might run
9479 find / -owner OLDUSER -print0 | xargs -0 chown -h NEWUSER
9482 But that is dangerous because the interval between when the @command{find}
9483 tests the existing file's owner and when the @command{chown} is actually run
9485 One way to narrow the gap would be to invoke chown for each file
9489 find / -owner OLDUSER -exec chown -h NEWUSER @{@} \;
9492 But that is very slow if there are many affected files.
9493 With this option, it is safer (the gap is narrower still)
9494 though still not perfect:
9497 chown -h -R --from=OLDUSER NEWUSER /
9501 @opindex --dereference
9502 @cindex symbolic links, changing owner
9504 Do not act on symbolic links themselves but rather on what they point to.
9505 This is the default.
9508 @itemx --no-dereference
9510 @opindex --no-dereference
9511 @cindex symbolic links, changing owner
9513 Act on symbolic links themselves instead of what they point to.
9514 This mode relies on the @code{lchown} system call.
9515 On systems that do not provide the @code{lchown} system call,
9516 @command{chown} fails when a file specified on the command line
9518 By default, no diagnostic is issued for symbolic links encountered
9519 during a recursive traversal, but see @option{--verbose}.
9521 @itemx --preserve-root
9522 @opindex --preserve-root
9523 @cindex root directory, disallow recursive modification
9524 Fail upon any attempt to recursively change the root directory, @file{/}.
9525 Without @option{--recursive}, this option has no effect.
9526 @xref{Treating / specially}.
9528 @itemx --no-preserve-root
9529 @opindex --no-preserve-root
9530 @cindex root directory, allow recursive modification
9531 Cancel the effect of any preceding @option{--preserve-root} option.
9532 @xref{Treating / specially}.
9534 @item --reference=@var{ref_file}
9535 @opindex --reference
9536 Change the user and group of each @var{file} to be the same as those of
9537 @var{ref_file}. If @var{ref_file} is a symbolic link, do not use the
9538 user and group of the symbolic link, but rather those of the file it
9545 Output a diagnostic for every file processed.
9546 If a symbolic link is encountered during a recursive traversal
9547 on a system without the @code{lchown} system call, and @option{--no-dereference}
9548 is in effect, then issue a diagnostic saying neither the symbolic link nor
9549 its referent is being changed.
9554 @opindex --recursive
9555 @cindex recursively changing file ownership
9556 Recursively change ownership of directories and their contents.
9559 @xref{Traversing symlinks}.
9562 @xref{Traversing symlinks}.
9565 @xref{Traversing symlinks}.
9574 # Change the owner of /u to "root".
9577 # Likewise, but also change its group to "staff".
9580 # Change the owner of /u and subfiles to "root".
9585 @node chgrp invocation
9586 @section @command{chgrp}: Change group ownership
9589 @cindex group ownership, changing
9590 @cindex changing group ownership
9592 @command{chgrp} changes the group ownership of each given @var{file}
9593 to @var{group} (which can be either a group name or a numeric group ID)
9594 or to the group of an existing reference file. Synopsis:
9597 chgrp [@var{option}]@dots{} @{@var{group} | --reference=@var{ref_file}@} @var{file}@dots{}
9600 If @var{group} is intended to represent a
9601 numeric group ID, then you may specify it with a leading @samp{+}.
9602 @xref{Disambiguating names and IDs}.
9604 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
9612 @cindex changed files, verbosely describing
9613 Verbosely describe the action for each @var{file} whose group actually
9622 @cindex error messages, omitting
9623 Do not print error messages about files whose group cannot be
9627 @opindex --dereference
9628 @cindex symbolic links, changing owner
9630 Do not act on symbolic links themselves but rather on what they point to.
9631 This is the default.
9634 @itemx --no-dereference
9636 @opindex --no-dereference
9637 @cindex symbolic links, changing group
9639 Act on symbolic links themselves instead of what they point to.
9640 This mode relies on the @code{lchown} system call.
9641 On systems that do not provide the @code{lchown} system call,
9642 @command{chgrp} fails when a file specified on the command line
9644 By default, no diagnostic is issued for symbolic links encountered
9645 during a recursive traversal, but see @option{--verbose}.
9647 @itemx --preserve-root
9648 @opindex --preserve-root
9649 @cindex root directory, disallow recursive modification
9650 Fail upon any attempt to recursively change the root directory, @file{/}.
9651 Without @option{--recursive}, this option has no effect.
9652 @xref{Treating / specially}.
9654 @itemx --no-preserve-root
9655 @opindex --no-preserve-root
9656 @cindex root directory, allow recursive modification
9657 Cancel the effect of any preceding @option{--preserve-root} option.
9658 @xref{Treating / specially}.
9660 @item --reference=@var{ref_file}
9661 @opindex --reference
9662 Change the group of each @var{file} to be the same as that of
9663 @var{ref_file}. If @var{ref_file} is a symbolic link, do not use the
9664 group of the symbolic link, but rather that of the file it refers to.
9670 Output a diagnostic for every file processed.
9671 If a symbolic link is encountered during a recursive traversal
9672 on a system without the @code{lchown} system call, and @option{--no-dereference}
9673 is in effect, then issue a diagnostic saying neither the symbolic link nor
9674 its referent is being changed.
9679 @opindex --recursive
9680 @cindex recursively changing group ownership
9681 Recursively change the group ownership of directories and their contents.
9684 @xref{Traversing symlinks}.
9687 @xref{Traversing symlinks}.
9690 @xref{Traversing symlinks}.
9699 # Change the group of /u to "staff".
9702 # Change the group of /u and subfiles to "staff".
9707 @node chmod invocation
9708 @section @command{chmod}: Change access permissions
9711 @cindex changing access permissions
9712 @cindex access permissions, changing
9713 @cindex permissions, changing access
9715 @command{chmod} changes the access permissions of the named files. Synopsis:
9718 chmod [@var{option}]@dots{} @{@var{mode} | --reference=@var{ref_file}@} @var{file}@dots{}
9721 @cindex symbolic links, permissions of
9722 @command{chmod} never changes the permissions of symbolic links, since
9723 the @command{chmod} system call cannot change their permissions.
9724 This is not a problem since the permissions of symbolic links are
9725 never used. However, for each symbolic link listed on the command
9726 line, @command{chmod} changes the permissions of the pointed-to file.
9727 In contrast, @command{chmod} ignores symbolic links encountered during
9728 recursive directory traversals.
9730 A successful use of @command{chmod} clears the set-group-ID bit of a
9731 regular file if the file's group ID does not match the user's
9732 effective group ID or one of the user's supplementary group IDs,
9733 unless the user has appropriate privileges. Additional restrictions
9734 may cause the set-user-ID and set-group-ID bits of @var{mode} or
9735 @var{ref_file} to be ignored. This behavior depends on the policy and
9736 functionality of the underlying @code{chmod} system call. When in
9737 doubt, check the underlying system behavior.
9739 If used, @var{mode} specifies the new file mode bits.
9740 For details, see the section on @ref{File permissions}.
9741 If you really want @var{mode} to have a leading @samp{-}, you should
9742 use @option{--} first, e.g., @samp{chmod -- -w file}. Typically,
9743 though, @samp{chmod a-w file} is preferable, and @command{chmod -w
9744 file} (without the @option{--}) complains if it behaves differently
9745 from what @samp{chmod a-w file} would do.
9747 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
9755 Verbosely describe the action for each @var{file} whose permissions
9764 @cindex error messages, omitting
9765 Do not print error messages about files whose permissions cannot be
9768 @itemx --preserve-root
9769 @opindex --preserve-root
9770 @cindex root directory, disallow recursive modification
9771 Fail upon any attempt to recursively change the root directory, @file{/}.
9772 Without @option{--recursive}, this option has no effect.
9773 @xref{Treating / specially}.
9775 @itemx --no-preserve-root
9776 @opindex --no-preserve-root
9777 @cindex root directory, allow recursive modification
9778 Cancel the effect of any preceding @option{--preserve-root} option.
9779 @xref{Treating / specially}.
9785 Verbosely describe the action or non-action taken for every @var{file}.
9787 @item --reference=@var{ref_file}
9788 @opindex --reference
9789 Change the mode of each @var{file} to be the same as that of @var{ref_file}.
9790 @xref{File permissions}.
9791 If @var{ref_file} is a symbolic link, do not use the mode
9792 of the symbolic link, but rather that of the file it refers to.
9797 @opindex --recursive
9798 @cindex recursively changing access permissions
9799 Recursively change permissions of directories and their contents.
9806 @node touch invocation
9807 @section @command{touch}: Change file timestamps
9810 @cindex changing file timestamps
9811 @cindex file timestamps, changing
9812 @cindex timestamps, changing file
9814 @command{touch} changes the access and/or modification times of the
9815 specified files. Synopsis:
9818 touch [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{file}@dots{}
9821 @cindex empty files, creating
9822 Any @var{file} argument that does not exist is created empty.
9824 A @var{file} argument string of @samp{-} is handled specially and
9825 causes @command{touch} to change the times of the file associated with
9828 @cindex permissions, for changing file timestamps
9829 If changing both the access and modification times to the current
9830 time, @command{touch} can change the timestamps for files that the user
9831 running it does not own but has write permission for. Otherwise, the
9832 user must own the files.
9834 Although @command{touch} provides options for changing two of the times---the
9835 times of last access and modification---of a file, there is actually
9836 a third one as well: the inode change time. This is often referred to
9837 as a file's @code{ctime}.
9838 The inode change time represents the time when the file's meta-information
9839 last changed. One common example of this is when the permissions of a
9840 file change. Changing the permissions doesn't access the file, so
9841 the atime doesn't change, nor does it modify the file, so the mtime
9842 doesn't change. Yet, something about the file itself has changed,
9843 and this must be noted somewhere. This is the job of the ctime field.
9844 This is necessary, so that, for example, a backup program can make a
9845 fresh copy of the file, including the new permissions value.
9846 Another operation that modifies a file's ctime without affecting
9847 the others is renaming. In any case, it is not possible, in normal
9848 operations, for a user to change the ctime field to a user-specified value.
9851 Time stamps assume the time zone rules specified by the @env{TZ}
9852 environment variable, or by the system default rules if @env{TZ} is
9853 not set. @xref{TZ Variable,, Specifying the Time Zone with @env{TZ},
9854 libc, The GNU C Library Reference Manual}.
9855 You can avoid ambiguities during
9856 daylight saving transitions by using @sc{utc} time stamps.
9858 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
9864 @itemx --time=access
9868 @opindex atime@r{, changing}
9869 @opindex access @r{time, changing}
9870 @opindex use @r{time, changing}
9871 Change the access time only.
9876 @opindex --no-create
9877 Do not create files that do not exist.
9880 @itemx --date=@var{time}
9884 Use @var{time} instead of the current time. It can contain month names,
9885 time zones, @samp{am} and @samp{pm}, @samp{yesterday}, etc. For
9886 example, @option{--date="2004-02-27 14:19:13.489392193 +0530"}
9887 specifies the instant of time that is 489,392,193 nanoseconds after
9888 February 27, 2004 at 2:19:13 PM in a time zone that is 5 hours and 30
9889 minutes east of @acronym{UTC}. @xref{Date input formats}.
9890 File systems that do not support high-resolution time stamps
9891 silently ignore any excess precision here.
9895 @cindex BSD @command{touch} compatibility
9896 Ignored; for compatibility with BSD versions of @command{touch}.
9900 @itemx --time=modify
9903 @opindex mtime@r{, changing}
9904 @opindex modify @r{time, changing}
9905 Change the modification time only.
9908 @itemx --reference=@var{file}
9910 @opindex --reference
9911 Use the times of the reference @var{file} instead of the current time.
9912 If this option is combined with the @option{--date=@var{time}}
9913 (@option{-d @var{time}}) option, the reference @var{file}'s time is
9914 the origin for any relative @var{time}s given, but is otherwise ignored.
9915 For example, @samp{-r foo -d '-5 seconds'} specifies a time stamp
9916 equal to five seconds before the corresponding time stamp for @file{foo}.
9918 @item -t [[@var{cc}]@var{yy}]@var{mmddhhmm}[.@var{ss}]
9919 Use the argument (optional four-digit or two-digit years, months,
9920 days, hours, minutes, optional seconds) instead of the current time.
9921 If the year is specified with only two digits, then @var{cc}
9922 is 20 for years in the range 0 @dots{} 68, and 19 for years in
9923 69 @dots{} 99. If no digits of the year are specified,
9924 the argument is interpreted as a date in the current year.
9928 @vindex _POSIX2_VERSION
9929 On older systems, @command{touch} supports an obsolete syntax, as follows.
9930 If no timestamp is given with any of the @option{-d}, @option{-r}, or
9931 @option{-t} options, and if there are two or more @var{file}s and the
9932 first @var{file} is of the form @samp{@var{mmddhhmm}[@var{yy}]} and this
9933 would be a valid argument to the @option{-t} option (if the @var{yy}, if
9934 any, were moved to the front), and if the represented year
9935 is in the range 1969--1999, that argument is interpreted as the time
9936 for the other files instead of as a file name.
9937 This obsolete behavior can be enabled or disabled with the
9938 @env{_POSIX2_VERSION} environment variable (@pxref{Standards
9939 conformance}), but portable scripts should avoid commands whose
9940 behavior depends on this variable.
9941 For example, use @samp{touch ./12312359 main.c} or @samp{touch -t
9942 12312359 main.c} rather than the ambiguous @samp{touch 12312359 main.c}.
9952 No disk can hold an infinite amount of data. These commands report
9953 how much disk storage is in use or available, report other file and
9954 file status information, and write buffers to disk.
9957 * df invocation:: Report file system disk space usage.
9958 * du invocation:: Estimate file space usage.
9959 * stat invocation:: Report file or file system status.
9960 * sync invocation:: Synchronize memory and disk.
9961 * truncate invocation:: Shrink or extend the size of a file.
9966 @section @command{df}: Report file system disk space usage
9969 @cindex file system disk usage
9970 @cindex disk usage by file system
9972 @command{df} reports the amount of disk space used and available on
9973 file systems. Synopsis:
9976 df [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
9979 With no arguments, @command{df} reports the space used and available on all
9980 currently mounted file systems (of all types). Otherwise, @command{df}
9981 reports on the file system containing each argument @var{file}.
9983 Normally the disk space is printed in units of
9984 1024 bytes, but this can be overridden (@pxref{Block size}).
9985 Non-integer quantities are rounded up to the next higher unit.
9987 @cindex disk device file
9988 @cindex device file, disk
9989 If an argument @var{file} is a disk device file containing a mounted
9990 file system, @command{df} shows the space available on that file system
9991 rather than on the file system containing the device node (i.e., the root
9992 file system). @sc{gnu} @command{df} does not attempt to determine the disk usage
9993 on unmounted file systems, because on most kinds of systems doing so
9994 requires extremely nonportable intimate knowledge of file system
9997 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
10005 @cindex automounter file systems
10006 @cindex ignore file systems
10007 Include in the listing dummy file systems, which
10008 are omitted by default. Such file systems are typically special-purpose
10009 pseudo-file-systems, such as automounter entries.
10011 @item -B @var{size}
10012 @itemx --block-size=@var{size}
10014 @opindex --block-size
10015 @cindex file system sizes
10016 Scale sizes by @var{size} before printing them (@pxref{Block size}).
10017 For example, @option{-BG} prints sizes in units of 1,073,741,824 bytes.
10021 @cindex grand total of disk size, usage and available space
10022 Print a grand total of all arguments after all arguments have
10023 been processed. This can be used to find out the total disk size, usage
10024 and available space of all listed devices.
10030 Equivalent to @option{--si}.
10036 @cindex inode usage
10037 List inode usage information instead of block usage. An inode (short
10038 for index node) contains information about a file such as its owner,
10039 permissions, timestamps, and location on the disk.
10043 @cindex kibibytes for file system sizes
10044 Print sizes in 1024-byte blocks, overriding the default block size
10045 (@pxref{Block size}).
10046 This option is equivalent to @option{--block-size=1K}.
10052 @cindex file system types, limiting output to certain
10053 Limit the listing to local file systems. By default, remote file systems
10058 @cindex file system space, retrieving old data more quickly
10059 Do not invoke the @code{sync} system call before getting any usage data.
10060 This may make @command{df} run significantly faster on systems with many
10061 disks, but on some systems (notably SunOS) the results may be slightly
10062 out of date. This is the default.
10065 @itemx --portability
10067 @opindex --portability
10068 @cindex one-line output format
10069 @cindex @acronym{POSIX} output format
10070 @cindex portable output format
10071 @cindex output format, portable
10072 Use the @acronym{POSIX} output format. This is like the default format except
10077 The information about each file system is always printed on exactly
10078 one line; a mount device is never put on a line by itself. This means
10079 that if the mount device name is more than 20 characters long (e.g., for
10080 some network mounts), the columns are misaligned.
10083 The labels in the header output line are changed to conform to @acronym{POSIX}.
10086 The default block size and output format are unaffected by the
10087 @env{DF_BLOCK_SIZE}, @env{BLOCK_SIZE} and @env{BLOCKSIZE} environment
10088 variables. However, the default block size is still affected by
10089 @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT}: it is 512 if @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} is set, 1024
10090 otherwise. @xref{Block size}.
10097 @cindex file system space, retrieving current data more slowly
10098 Invoke the @code{sync} system call before getting any usage data. On
10099 some systems (notably SunOS), doing this yields more up to date results,
10100 but in general this option makes @command{df} much slower, especially when
10101 there are many or very busy file systems.
10103 @item -t @var{fstype}
10104 @itemx --type=@var{fstype}
10107 @cindex file system types, limiting output to certain
10108 Limit the listing to file systems of type @var{fstype}. Multiple
10109 file system types can be specified by giving multiple @option{-t} options.
10110 By default, nothing is omitted.
10113 @itemx --print-type
10115 @opindex --print-type
10116 @cindex file system types, printing
10117 Print each file system's type. The types printed here are the same ones
10118 you can include or exclude with @option{-t} and @option{-x}. The particular
10119 types printed are whatever is supported by the system. Here are some of
10120 the common names (this list is certainly not exhaustive):
10125 @cindex @acronym{NFS} file system type
10126 An @acronym{NFS} file system, i.e., one mounted over a network from another
10127 machine. This is the one type name which seems to be used uniformly by
10130 @item 4.2@r{, }ufs@r{, }efs@dots{}
10131 @cindex Linux file system types
10132 @cindex local file system types
10133 @opindex 4.2 @r{file system type}
10134 @opindex ufs @r{file system type}
10135 @opindex efs @r{file system type}
10136 A file system on a locally-mounted hard disk. (The system might even
10137 support more than one type here; Linux does.)
10139 @item hsfs@r{, }cdfs
10140 @cindex CD-ROM file system type
10141 @cindex High Sierra file system
10142 @opindex hsfs @r{file system type}
10143 @opindex cdfs @r{file system type}
10144 A file system on a CD-ROM drive. HP-UX uses @samp{cdfs}, most other
10145 systems use @samp{hsfs} (@samp{hs} for ``High Sierra'').
10148 @cindex PC file system
10149 @cindex DOS file system
10150 @cindex MS-DOS file system
10151 @cindex diskette file system
10153 An MS-DOS file system, usually on a diskette.
10157 @item -x @var{fstype}
10158 @itemx --exclude-type=@var{fstype}
10160 @opindex --exclude-type
10161 Limit the listing to file systems not of type @var{fstype}.
10162 Multiple file system types can be eliminated by giving multiple
10163 @option{-x} options. By default, no file system types are omitted.
10166 Ignored; for compatibility with System V versions of @command{df}.
10171 Failure includes the case where no output is generated, so you can
10172 inspect the exit status of a command like @samp{df -t ext3 -t reiserfs
10173 @var{dir}} to test whether @var{dir} is on a file system of type
10174 @samp{ext3} or @samp{reiserfs}.
10177 @node du invocation
10178 @section @command{du}: Estimate file space usage
10181 @cindex file space usage
10182 @cindex disk usage for files
10184 @command{du} reports the amount of disk space used by the specified files
10185 and for each subdirectory (of directory arguments). Synopsis:
10188 du [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
10191 With no arguments, @command{du} reports the disk space for the current
10192 directory. Normally the disk space is printed in units of
10193 1024 bytes, but this can be overridden (@pxref{Block size}).
10194 Non-integer quantities are rounded up to the next higher unit.
10196 If two or more hard links point to the same file, only one of the hard
10197 links is counted. The @var{file} argument order affects which links
10198 are counted, and changing the argument order may change the numbers
10199 that @command{du} outputs.
10201 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
10209 Show counts for all files, not just directories.
10211 @itemx --apparent-size
10212 @opindex --apparent-size
10213 Print apparent sizes, rather than disk usage. The apparent size of a
10214 file is the number of bytes reported by @code{wc -c} on regular files,
10215 or more generally, @code{ls -l --block-size=1} or @code{stat --format=%s}.
10216 For example, a file containing the word @samp{zoo} with no newline would,
10217 of course, have an apparent size of 3. Such a small file may require
10218 anywhere from 0 to 16 KiB or more of disk space, depending on
10219 the type and configuration of the file system on which the file resides.
10220 However, a sparse file created with this command:
10223 dd bs=1 seek=2GiB if=/dev/null of=big
10227 has an apparent size of 2 GiB, yet on most modern
10228 systems, it actually uses almost no disk space.
10234 Equivalent to @code{--apparent-size --block-size=1}.
10236 @item -B @var{size}
10237 @itemx --block-size=@var{size}
10239 @opindex --block-size
10241 Scale sizes by @var{size} before printing them (@pxref{Block size}).
10242 For example, @option{-BG} prints sizes in units of 1,073,741,824 bytes.
10248 @cindex grand total of disk space
10249 Print a grand total of all arguments after all arguments have
10250 been processed. This can be used to find out the total disk usage of
10251 a given set of files or directories.
10254 @itemx --dereference-args
10256 @opindex --dereference-args
10257 Dereference symbolic links that are command line arguments.
10258 Does not affect other symbolic links. This is helpful for finding
10259 out the disk usage of directories, such as @file{/usr/tmp}, which
10260 are often symbolic links.
10262 @c --files0-from=FILE
10263 @filesZeroFromOption{du,, with the @option{--total} (@option{-c}) option}
10269 Equivalent to @option{--dereference-args} (@option{-D}).
10273 @cindex kibibytes for file sizes
10274 Print sizes in 1024-byte blocks, overriding the default block size
10275 (@pxref{Block size}).
10276 This option is equivalent to @option{--block-size=1K}.
10279 @itemx --count-links
10281 @opindex --count-links
10282 @cindex hard links, counting in @command{du}
10283 Count the size of all files, even if they have appeared already (as a
10287 @itemx --dereference
10289 @opindex --dereference
10290 @cindex symbolic links, dereferencing in @command{du}
10291 Dereference symbolic links (show the disk space used by the file
10292 or directory that the link points to instead of the space used by
10297 @cindex mebibytes for file sizes
10298 Print sizes in 1,048,576-byte blocks, overriding the default block size
10299 (@pxref{Block size}).
10300 This option is equivalent to @option{--block-size=1M}.
10303 @itemx --no-dereference
10305 @opindex --no-dereference
10306 @cindex symbolic links, dereferencing in @command{du}
10307 For each symbolic links encountered by @command{du},
10308 consider the disk space used by the symbolic link.
10310 @item --max-depth=@var{depth}
10311 @opindex --max-depth=@var{depth}
10312 @cindex limiting output of @command{du}
10313 Show the total for each directory (and file if --all) that is at
10314 most MAX_DEPTH levels down from the root of the hierarchy. The root
10315 is at level 0, so @code{du --max-depth=0} is equivalent to @code{du -s}.
10321 @cindex output null-byte-terminated lines
10322 Output a zero byte (@acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul}) at the end of each line,
10323 rather than a newline. This option enables other programs to parse the
10324 output of @command{du} even when that output would contain file names
10325 with embedded newlines.
10332 @opindex --summarize
10333 Display only a total for each argument.
10336 @itemx --separate-dirs
10338 @opindex --separate-dirs
10339 Normally, in the output of @command{du} (when not using @option{--summarize}),
10340 the size listed next to a directory name, @var{d}, represents the sum
10341 of sizes of all entries beneath @var{d} as well as the size of @var{d} itself.
10342 With @option{--separate-dirs}, the size reported for a directory name,
10343 @var{d}, is merely the @code{stat.st_size}-derived size of the directory
10348 @cindex last modified dates, displaying in @command{du}
10349 Show time of the most recent modification of any file in the directory,
10350 or any of its subdirectories.
10352 @itemx --time=ctime
10353 @itemx --time=status
10356 @opindex ctime@r{, show the most recent}
10357 @opindex status time@r{, show the most recent}
10358 @opindex use time@r{, show the most recent}
10359 Show the most recent status change time (the @samp{ctime} in the inode) of
10360 any file in the directory, instead of the modification time.
10362 @itemx --time=atime
10363 @itemx --time=access
10365 @opindex atime@r{, show the most recent}
10366 @opindex access time@r{, show the most recent}
10367 Show the most recent access time (the @samp{atime} in the inode) of
10368 any file in the directory, instead of the modification time.
10370 @item --time-style=@var{style}
10371 @opindex --time-style
10373 List timestamps in style @var{style}. This option has an effect only if
10374 the @option{--time} option is also specified. The @var{style} should
10375 be one of the following:
10378 @item +@var{format}
10380 List timestamps using @var{format}, where @var{format} is interpreted
10381 like the format argument of @command{date} (@pxref{date invocation}).
10382 For example, @option{--time-style="+%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S"} causes
10383 @command{du} to list timestamps like @samp{2002-03-30 23:45:56}. As
10384 with @command{date}, @var{format}'s interpretation is affected by the
10385 @env{LC_TIME} locale category.
10388 List timestamps in full using @acronym{ISO} 8601 date, time, and time zone
10389 format with nanosecond precision, e.g., @samp{2002-03-30
10390 23:45:56.477817180 -0700}. This style is equivalent to
10391 @samp{+%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S.%N %z}.
10394 List @acronym{ISO} 8601 date and time in minutes, e.g.,
10395 @samp{2002-03-30 23:45}. These timestamps are shorter than
10396 @samp{full-iso} timestamps, and are usually good enough for everyday
10397 work. This style is equivalent to @samp{+%Y-%m-%d %H:%M}.
10400 List @acronym{ISO} 8601 dates for timestamps, e.g., @samp{2002-03-30}.
10401 This style is equivalent to @samp{+%Y-%m-%d}.
10405 You can specify the default value of the @option{--time-style} option
10406 with the environment variable @env{TIME_STYLE}; if @env{TIME_STYLE} is not set
10407 the default style is @samp{long-iso}. For compatibility with @command{ls},
10408 if @env{TIME_STYLE} begins with @samp{+} and contains a newline,
10409 the newline and any later characters are ignored; if @env{TIME_STYLE}
10410 begins with @samp{posix-} the @samp{posix-} is ignored; and if
10411 @env{TIME_STYLE} is @samp{locale} it is ignored.
10414 @itemx --one-file-system
10416 @opindex --one-file-system
10417 @cindex one file system, restricting @command{du} to
10418 Skip directories that are on different file systems from the one that
10419 the argument being processed is on.
10421 @item --exclude=@var{pattern}
10422 @opindex --exclude=@var{pattern}
10423 @cindex excluding files from @command{du}
10424 When recursing, skip subdirectories or files matching @var{pattern}.
10425 For example, @code{du --exclude='*.o'} excludes files whose names
10428 @item -X @var{file}
10429 @itemx --exclude-from=@var{file}
10430 @opindex -X @var{file}
10431 @opindex --exclude-from=@var{file}
10432 @cindex excluding files from @command{du}
10433 Like @option{--exclude}, except take the patterns to exclude from @var{file},
10434 one per line. If @var{file} is @samp{-}, take the patterns from standard
10439 @cindex NFS mounts from BSD to HP-UX
10440 On BSD systems, @command{du} reports sizes that are half the correct
10441 values for files that are NFS-mounted from HP-UX systems. On HP-UX
10442 systems, it reports sizes that are twice the correct values for
10443 files that are NFS-mounted from BSD systems. This is due to a flaw
10444 in HP-UX; it also affects the HP-UX @command{du} program.
10449 @node stat invocation
10450 @section @command{stat}: Report file or file system status
10453 @cindex file status
10454 @cindex file system status
10456 @command{stat} displays information about the specified file(s). Synopsis:
10459 stat [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
10462 With no option, @command{stat} reports all information about the given files.
10463 But it also can be used to report the information of the file systems the
10464 given files are located on. If the files are links, @command{stat} can
10465 also give information about the files the links point to.
10467 @mayConflictWithShellBuiltIn{stat}
10472 @itemx --dereference
10474 @opindex --dereference
10475 @cindex symbolic links, dereferencing in @command{stat}
10476 Change how @command{stat} treats symbolic links.
10477 With this option, @command{stat} acts on the file referenced
10478 by each symbolic link argument.
10479 Without it, @command{stat} acts on any symbolic link argument directly.
10482 @itemx --file-system
10484 @opindex --file-system
10485 @cindex file systems
10486 Report information about the file systems where the given files are located
10487 instead of information about the files themselves.
10490 @itemx --format=@var{format}
10492 @opindex --format=@var{format}
10493 @cindex output format
10494 Use @var{format} rather than the default format.
10495 @var{format} is automatically newline-terminated, so
10496 running a command like the following with two or more @var{file}
10497 operands produces a line of output for each operand:
10499 $ stat --format=%d:%i / /usr
10504 @itemx --printf=@var{format}
10505 @opindex --printf=@var{format}
10506 @cindex output format
10507 Use @var{format} rather than the default format.
10508 Like @option{--format}, but interpret backslash escapes,
10509 and do not output a mandatory trailing newline.
10510 If you want a newline, include @samp{\n} in the @var{format}.
10511 Here's how you would use @option{--printf} to print the device
10512 and inode numbers of @file{/} and @file{/usr}:
10514 $ stat --printf='%d:%i\n' / /usr
10523 @cindex terse output
10524 Print the information in terse form, suitable for parsing by other programs.
10528 The valid @var{format} directives for files with @option{--format} and
10529 @option{--printf} are:
10532 @item %a - Access rights in octal
10533 @item %A - Access rights in human readable form
10534 @item %b - Number of blocks allocated (see @samp{%B})
10535 @item %B - The size in bytes of each block reported by @samp{%b}
10536 @item %d - Device number in decimal
10537 @item %D - Device number in hex
10538 @item %f - Raw mode in hex
10539 @item %F - File type
10540 @item %g - Group ID of owner
10541 @item %G - Group name of owner
10542 @item %h - Number of hard links
10543 @item %i - Inode number
10544 @item %n - File name
10545 @item %N - Quoted file name with dereference if symbolic link
10546 @item %o - I/O block size
10547 @item %s - Total size, in bytes
10548 @item %t - Major device type in hex
10549 @item %T - Minor device type in hex
10550 @item %u - User ID of owner
10551 @item %U - User name of owner
10552 @item %x - Time of last access
10553 @item %X - Time of last access as seconds since Epoch
10554 @item %y - Time of last modification
10555 @item %Y - Time of last modification as seconds since Epoch
10556 @item %z - Time of last change
10557 @item %Z - Time of last change as seconds since Epoch
10560 When listing file system information (@option{--file-system} (@option{-f})),
10561 you must use a different set of @var{format} directives:
10564 @item %a - Free blocks available to non-super-user
10565 @item %b - Total data blocks in file system
10566 @item %c - Total file nodes in file system
10567 @item %d - Free file nodes in file system
10568 @item %f - Free blocks in file system
10569 @item %i - File System ID in hex
10570 @item %l - Maximum length of file names
10571 @item %n - File name
10572 @item %s - Block size (for faster transfers)
10573 @item %S - Fundamental block size (for block counts)
10574 @item %t - Type in hex
10575 @item %T - Type in human readable form
10579 Time stamps are listed according to the time zone rules specified by
10580 the @env{TZ} environment variable, or by the system default rules if
10581 @env{TZ} is not set. @xref{TZ Variable,, Specifying the Time Zone
10582 with @env{TZ}, libc, The GNU C Library Reference Manual}.
10587 @node sync invocation
10588 @section @command{sync}: Synchronize data on disk with memory
10591 @cindex synchronize disk and memory
10593 @cindex superblock, writing
10594 @cindex inodes, written buffered
10595 @command{sync} writes any data buffered in memory out to disk. This can
10596 include (but is not limited to) modified superblocks, modified inodes,
10597 and delayed reads and writes. This must be implemented by the kernel;
10598 The @command{sync} program does nothing but exercise the @code{sync} system
10601 @cindex crashes and corruption
10602 The kernel keeps data in memory to avoid doing (relatively slow) disk
10603 reads and writes. This improves performance, but if the computer
10604 crashes, data may be lost or the file system corrupted as a
10605 result. The @command{sync} command ensures everything in memory
10606 is written to disk.
10608 Any arguments are ignored, except for a lone @option{--help} or
10609 @option{--version} (@pxref{Common options}).
10614 @node truncate invocation
10615 @section @command{truncate}: Shrink or extend the size of a file
10618 @cindex truncating, file sizes
10620 @command{truncate} shrinks or extends the size of each @var{file} to the
10621 specified size. Synopsis:
10624 truncate @var{option}@dots{} @var{file}@dots{}
10627 @cindex files, creating
10628 Any @var{file} that does not exist is created.
10630 @cindex sparse files, creating
10631 @cindex holes, creating files with
10632 If a @var{file} is larger than the specified size, the extra data is lost.
10633 If a @var{file} is shorter, it is extended and the extended part (or hole)
10634 reads as zero bytes.
10636 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
10643 @opindex --no-create
10644 Do not create files that do not exist.
10649 @opindex --io-blocks
10650 Treat @var{size} as number of I/O blocks of the @var{file} rather than bytes.
10652 @item -r @var{rfile}
10653 @itemx --reference=@var{rfile}
10655 @opindex --reference
10656 Set the size of each @var{file} to the same size as @var{rfile}.
10658 @item -s @var{size}
10659 @itemx --size=@var{size}
10662 Set the size of each @var{file} to this @var{size}.
10663 @multiplierSuffixesNoBlocks{size}
10665 @var{size} may also be prefixed by one of the following to adjust
10666 the size of each @var{file} based on their current size:
10668 @samp{+} => extend by
10669 @samp{-} => reduce by
10670 @samp{<} => at most
10671 @samp{>} => at least
10672 @samp{/} => round down to multiple of
10673 @samp{%} => round up to multiple of
10681 @node Printing text
10682 @chapter Printing text
10684 @cindex printing text, commands for
10685 @cindex commands for printing text
10687 This section describes commands that display text strings.
10690 * echo invocation:: Print a line of text.
10691 * printf invocation:: Format and print data.
10692 * yes invocation:: Print a string until interrupted.
10696 @node echo invocation
10697 @section @command{echo}: Print a line of text
10700 @cindex displaying text
10701 @cindex printing text
10702 @cindex text, displaying
10703 @cindex arbitrary text, displaying
10705 @command{echo} writes each given @var{string} to standard output, with a
10706 space between each and a newline after the last one. Synopsis:
10709 echo [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{string}]@dots{}
10712 @mayConflictWithShellBuiltIn{echo}
10714 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
10715 Options must precede operands, and the normally-special argument
10716 @samp{--} has no special meaning and is treated like any other
10722 Do not output the trailing newline.
10726 @cindex backslash escapes
10727 Enable interpretation of the following backslash-escaped characters in
10736 produce no further output
10750 the eight-bit value that is the octal number @var{nnn}
10751 (zero to three octal digits)
10753 the eight-bit value that is the octal number @var{nnn}
10754 (one to three octal digits)
10756 the eight-bit value that is the hexadecimal number @var{hh}
10757 (one or two hexadecimal digits)
10762 @cindex backslash escapes
10763 Disable interpretation of backslash escapes in each @var{string}.
10764 This is the default. If @option{-e} and @option{-E} are both
10765 specified, the last one given takes effect.
10769 @vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
10770 If the @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} environment variable is set, then when
10771 @command{echo}'s first argument is not @option{-n} it outputs
10772 option-like arguments instead of treating them as options. For
10773 example, @code{echo -ne hello} outputs @samp{-ne hello} instead of
10774 plain @samp{hello}.
10776 @acronym{POSIX} does not require support for any options, and says
10777 that the behavior of @command{echo} is implementation-defined if any
10778 @var{string} contains a backslash or if the first argument is
10779 @option{-n}. Portable programs can use the @command{printf} command
10780 if they need to omit trailing newlines or output control characters or
10781 backslashes. @xref{printf invocation}.
10786 @node printf invocation
10787 @section @command{printf}: Format and print data
10790 @command{printf} does formatted printing of text. Synopsis:
10793 printf @var{format} [@var{argument}]@dots{}
10796 @command{printf} prints the @var{format} string, interpreting @samp{%}
10797 directives and @samp{\} escapes to format numeric and string arguments
10798 in a way that is mostly similar to the C @samp{printf} function.
10799 @xref{Output Conversion Syntax,, @command{printf} format directives,
10800 libc, The GNU C Library Reference Manual}, for details.
10801 The differences are listed below.
10803 @mayConflictWithShellBuiltIn{printf}
10808 The @var{format} argument is reused as necessary to convert all the
10809 given @var{argument}s. For example, the command @samp{printf %s a b}
10813 Missing @var{argument}s are treated as null strings or as zeros,
10814 depending on whether the context expects a string or a number. For
10815 example, the command @samp{printf %sx%d} prints @samp{x0}.
10819 An additional escape, @samp{\c}, causes @command{printf} to produce no
10820 further output. For example, the command @samp{printf 'A%sC\cD%sF' B
10821 E} prints @samp{ABC}.
10824 The hexadecimal escape sequence @samp{\x@var{hh}} has at most two
10825 digits, as opposed to C where it can have an unlimited number of
10826 digits. For example, the command @samp{printf '\x07e'} prints two
10827 bytes, whereas the C statement @samp{printf ("\x07e")} prints just
10832 @command{printf} has an additional directive, @samp{%b}, which prints its
10833 argument string with @samp{\} escapes interpreted in the same way as in
10834 the @var{format} string, except that octal escapes are of the form
10835 @samp{\0@var{ooo}} where @var{ooo} is 0 to 3 octal digits.
10836 If a precision is also given, it limits the number of bytes printed
10837 from the converted string.
10840 Numeric arguments must be single C constants, possibly with leading
10841 @samp{+} or @samp{-}. For example, @samp{printf %.4d -3} outputs
10845 @vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
10846 If the leading character of a numeric argument is @samp{"} or @samp{'}
10847 then its value is the numeric value of the immediately following
10848 character. Any remaining characters are silently ignored if the
10849 @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} environment variable is set; otherwise, a
10850 warning is printed. For example, @samp{printf "%d" "'a"} outputs
10851 @samp{97} on hosts that use the @acronym{ASCII} character set, since
10852 @samp{a} has the numeric value 97 in @acronym{ASCII}.
10857 A floating-point argument must use a period before any fractional
10858 digits, but is printed according to the @env{LC_NUMERIC} category of the
10859 current locale. For example, in a locale whose radix character is a
10860 comma, the command @samp{printf %g 3.14} outputs @samp{3,14} whereas
10861 the command @samp{printf %g 3,14} is an error.
10865 @command{printf} interprets @samp{\@var{ooo}} in @var{format} as an octal number
10866 (if @var{ooo} is 1 to 3 octal digits) specifying a character to print,
10867 and @samp{\x@var{hh}} as a hexadecimal number (if @var{hh} is 1 to 2 hex
10868 digits) specifying a character to print.
10873 @cindex ISO/IEC 10646
10875 @command{printf} interprets two character syntaxes introduced in
10876 @acronym{ISO} C 99:
10877 @samp{\u} for 16-bit Unicode (@acronym{ISO}/@acronym{IEC} 10646)
10878 characters, specified as
10879 four hexadecimal digits @var{hhhh}, and @samp{\U} for 32-bit Unicode
10880 characters, specified as eight hexadecimal digits @var{hhhhhhhh}.
10881 @command{printf} outputs the Unicode characters
10882 according to the @env{LC_CTYPE} locale. Unicode characters in the ranges
10883 U+0000...U+009F, U+D800...U+DFFF cannot be specified by this syntax, except
10884 for U+0024 ($), U+0040 (@@), and U+0060 (@`).
10886 The processing of @samp{\u} and @samp{\U} requires a full-featured
10887 @code{iconv} facility. It is activated on systems with glibc 2.2 (or newer),
10888 or when @code{libiconv} is installed prior to this package. Otherwise
10889 @samp{\u} and @samp{\U} will print as-is.
10891 The only options are a lone @option{--help} or
10892 @option{--version}. @xref{Common options}.
10893 Options must precede operands.
10895 The Unicode character syntaxes are useful for writing strings in a locale
10896 independent way. For example, a string containing the Euro currency symbol
10899 $ env printf '\u20AC 14.95'
10903 will be output correctly in all locales supporting the Euro symbol
10904 (@acronym{ISO}-8859-15, UTF-8, and others). Similarly, a Chinese string
10907 $ env printf '\u4e2d\u6587'
10911 will be output correctly in all Chinese locales (GB2312, BIG5, UTF-8, etc).
10913 Note that in these examples, the @command{printf} command has been
10914 invoked via @command{env} to ensure that we run the program found via
10915 your shell's search path, and not a shell alias or a built-in function.
10917 For larger strings, you don't need to look up the hexadecimal code
10918 values of each character one by one. @acronym{ASCII} characters mixed with \u
10919 escape sequences is also known as the JAVA source file encoding. You can
10920 use GNU recode 3.5c (or newer) to convert strings to this encoding. Here
10921 is how to convert a piece of text into a shell script which will output
10922 this text in a locale-independent way:
10925 $ LC_CTYPE=zh_CN.big5 /usr/local/bin/printf \
10926 '\u4e2d\u6587\n' > sample.txt
10927 $ recode BIG5..JAVA < sample.txt \
10928 | sed -e "s|^|/usr/local/bin/printf '|" -e "s|$|\\\\n'|" \
10935 @node yes invocation
10936 @section @command{yes}: Print a string until interrupted
10939 @cindex repeated output of a string
10941 @command{yes} prints the command line arguments, separated by spaces and
10942 followed by a newline, forever until it is killed. If no arguments are
10943 given, it prints @samp{y} followed by a newline forever until killed.
10945 Upon a write error, @command{yes} exits with status @samp{1}.
10947 The only options are a lone @option{--help} or @option{--version}.
10948 To output an argument that begins with
10949 @samp{-}, precede it with @option{--}, e.g., @samp{yes -- --help}.
10950 @xref{Common options}.
10954 @chapter Conditions
10957 @cindex commands for exit status
10958 @cindex exit status commands
10960 This section describes commands that are primarily useful for their exit
10961 status, rather than their output. Thus, they are often used as the
10962 condition of shell @code{if} statements, or as the last command in a
10966 * false invocation:: Do nothing, unsuccessfully.
10967 * true invocation:: Do nothing, successfully.
10968 * test invocation:: Check file types and compare values.
10969 * expr invocation:: Evaluate expressions.
10973 @node false invocation
10974 @section @command{false}: Do nothing, unsuccessfully
10977 @cindex do nothing, unsuccessfully
10978 @cindex failure exit status
10979 @cindex exit status of @command{false}
10981 @command{false} does nothing except return an exit status of 1, meaning
10982 @dfn{failure}. It can be used as a place holder in shell scripts
10983 where an unsuccessful command is needed.
10984 In most modern shells, @command{false} is a built-in command, so when
10985 you use @samp{false} in a script, you're probably using the built-in
10986 command, not the one documented here.
10988 @command{false} honors the @option{--help} and @option{--version} options.
10990 This version of @command{false} is implemented as a C program, and is thus
10991 more secure and faster than a shell script implementation, and may safely
10992 be used as a dummy shell for the purpose of disabling accounts.
10994 Note that @command{false} (unlike all other programs documented herein)
10995 exits unsuccessfully, even when invoked with
10996 @option{--help} or @option{--version}.
10998 Portable programs should not assume that the exit status of
10999 @command{false} is 1, as it is greater than 1 on some
11000 non-@acronym{GNU} hosts.
11003 @node true invocation
11004 @section @command{true}: Do nothing, successfully
11007 @cindex do nothing, successfully
11009 @cindex successful exit
11010 @cindex exit status of @command{true}
11012 @command{true} does nothing except return an exit status of 0, meaning
11013 @dfn{success}. It can be used as a place holder in shell scripts
11014 where a successful command is needed, although the shell built-in
11015 command @code{:} (colon) may do the same thing faster.
11016 In most modern shells, @command{true} is a built-in command, so when
11017 you use @samp{true} in a script, you're probably using the built-in
11018 command, not the one documented here.
11020 @command{true} honors the @option{--help} and @option{--version} options.
11022 Note, however, that it is possible to cause @command{true}
11023 to exit with nonzero status: with the @option{--help} or @option{--version}
11024 option, and with standard
11025 output already closed or redirected to a file that evokes an I/O error.
11026 For example, using a Bourne-compatible shell:
11029 $ ./true --version >&-
11030 ./true: write error: Bad file number
11031 $ ./true --version > /dev/full
11032 ./true: write error: No space left on device
11035 This version of @command{true} is implemented as a C program, and is thus
11036 more secure and faster than a shell script implementation, and may safely
11037 be used as a dummy shell for the purpose of disabling accounts.
11039 @node test invocation
11040 @section @command{test}: Check file types and compare values
11043 @cindex check file types
11044 @cindex compare values
11045 @cindex expression evaluation
11047 @command{test} returns a status of 0 (true) or 1 (false) depending on the
11048 evaluation of the conditional expression @var{expr}. Each part of the
11049 expression must be a separate argument.
11051 @command{test} has file status checks, string operators, and numeric
11052 comparison operators.
11054 @command{test} has an alternate form that uses opening and closing
11055 square brackets instead a leading @samp{test}. For example, instead
11056 of @samp{test -d /}, you can write @samp{[ -d / ]}. The square
11057 brackets must be separate arguments; for example, @samp{[-d /]} does
11058 not have the desired effect. Since @samp{test @var{expr}} and @samp{[
11059 @var{expr} ]} have the same meaning, only the former form is discussed
11065 test @var{expression}
11067 [ @var{expression} ]
11072 @mayConflictWithShellBuiltIn{test}
11074 If @var{expression} is omitted, @command{test} returns false.
11075 If @var{expression} is a single argument,
11076 @command{test} returns false if the argument is null and true otherwise. The argument
11077 can be any string, including strings like @samp{-d}, @samp{-1},
11078 @samp{--}, @samp{--help}, and @samp{--version} that most other
11079 programs would treat as options. To get help and version information,
11080 invoke the commands @samp{[ --help} and @samp{[ --version}, without
11081 the usual closing brackets. @xref{Common options}.
11083 @cindex exit status of @command{test}
11087 0 if the expression is true,
11088 1 if the expression is false,
11089 2 if an error occurred.
11093 * File type tests:: -[bcdfhLpSt]
11094 * Access permission tests:: -[gkruwxOG]
11095 * File characteristic tests:: -e -s -nt -ot -ef
11096 * String tests:: -z -n = !=
11097 * Numeric tests:: -eq -ne -lt -le -gt -ge
11098 * Connectives for test:: ! -a -o
11102 @node File type tests
11103 @subsection File type tests
11105 @cindex file type tests
11107 These options test for particular types of files. (Everything's a file,
11108 but not all files are the same!)
11112 @item -b @var{file}
11114 @cindex block special check
11115 True if @var{file} exists and is a block special device.
11117 @item -c @var{file}
11119 @cindex character special check
11120 True if @var{file} exists and is a character special device.
11122 @item -d @var{file}
11124 @cindex directory check
11125 True if @var{file} exists and is a directory.
11127 @item -f @var{file}
11129 @cindex regular file check
11130 True if @var{file} exists and is a regular file.
11132 @item -h @var{file}
11133 @itemx -L @var{file}
11136 @cindex symbolic link check
11137 True if @var{file} exists and is a symbolic link.
11138 Unlike all other file-related tests, this test does not dereference
11139 @var{file} if it is a symbolic link.
11141 @item -p @var{file}
11143 @cindex named pipe check
11144 True if @var{file} exists and is a named pipe.
11146 @item -S @var{file}
11148 @cindex socket check
11149 True if @var{file} exists and is a socket.
11153 @cindex terminal check
11154 True if @var{fd} is a file descriptor that is associated with a
11160 @node Access permission tests
11161 @subsection Access permission tests
11163 @cindex access permission tests
11164 @cindex permission tests
11166 These options test for particular access permissions.
11170 @item -g @var{file}
11172 @cindex set-group-ID check
11173 True if @var{file} exists and has its set-group-ID bit set.
11175 @item -k @var{file}
11177 @cindex sticky bit check
11178 True if @var{file} exists and has its @dfn{sticky} bit set.
11180 @item -r @var{file}
11182 @cindex readable file check
11183 True if @var{file} exists and read permission is granted.
11185 @item -u @var{file}
11187 @cindex set-user-ID check
11188 True if @var{file} exists and has its set-user-ID bit set.
11190 @item -w @var{file}
11192 @cindex writable file check
11193 True if @var{file} exists and write permission is granted.
11195 @item -x @var{file}
11197 @cindex executable file check
11198 True if @var{file} exists and execute permission is granted
11199 (or search permission, if it is a directory).
11201 @item -O @var{file}
11203 @cindex owned by effective user ID check
11204 True if @var{file} exists and is owned by the current effective user ID.
11206 @item -G @var{file}
11208 @cindex owned by effective group ID check
11209 True if @var{file} exists and is owned by the current effective group ID.
11213 @node File characteristic tests
11214 @subsection File characteristic tests
11216 @cindex file characteristic tests
11218 These options test other file characteristics.
11222 @item -e @var{file}
11224 @cindex existence-of-file check
11225 True if @var{file} exists.
11227 @item -s @var{file}
11229 @cindex nonempty file check
11230 True if @var{file} exists and has a size greater than zero.
11232 @item @var{file1} -nt @var{file2}
11234 @cindex newer-than file check
11235 True if @var{file1} is newer (according to modification date) than
11236 @var{file2}, or if @var{file1} exists and @var{file2} does not.
11238 @item @var{file1} -ot @var{file2}
11240 @cindex older-than file check
11241 True if @var{file1} is older (according to modification date) than
11242 @var{file2}, or if @var{file2} exists and @var{file1} does not.
11244 @item @var{file1} -ef @var{file2}
11246 @cindex same file check
11247 @cindex hard link check
11248 True if @var{file1} and @var{file2} have the same device and inode
11249 numbers, i.e., if they are hard links to each other.
11255 @subsection String tests
11257 @cindex string tests
11259 These options test string characteristics. You may need to quote
11260 @var{string} arguments for the shell. For example:
11266 The quotes here prevent the wrong arguments from being passed to
11267 @command{test} if @samp{$V} is empty or contains special characters.
11271 @item -z @var{string}
11273 @cindex zero-length string check
11274 True if the length of @var{string} is zero.
11276 @item -n @var{string}
11277 @itemx @var{string}
11279 @cindex nonzero-length string check
11280 True if the length of @var{string} is nonzero.
11282 @item @var{string1} = @var{string2}
11284 @cindex equal string check
11285 True if the strings are equal.
11287 @item @var{string1} != @var{string2}
11289 @cindex not-equal string check
11290 True if the strings are not equal.
11295 @node Numeric tests
11296 @subsection Numeric tests
11298 @cindex numeric tests
11299 @cindex arithmetic tests
11301 Numeric relational operators. The arguments must be entirely numeric
11302 (possibly negative), or the special expression @w{@code{-l @var{string}}},
11303 which evaluates to the length of @var{string}.
11307 @item @var{arg1} -eq @var{arg2}
11308 @itemx @var{arg1} -ne @var{arg2}
11309 @itemx @var{arg1} -lt @var{arg2}
11310 @itemx @var{arg1} -le @var{arg2}
11311 @itemx @var{arg1} -gt @var{arg2}
11312 @itemx @var{arg1} -ge @var{arg2}
11319 These arithmetic binary operators return true if @var{arg1} is equal,
11320 not-equal, less-than, less-than-or-equal, greater-than, or
11321 greater-than-or-equal than @var{arg2}, respectively.
11328 test -1 -gt -2 && echo yes
11330 test -l abc -gt 1 && echo yes
11333 @error{} test: integer expression expected before -eq
11337 @node Connectives for test
11338 @subsection Connectives for @command{test}
11340 @cindex logical connectives
11341 @cindex connectives, logical
11343 The usual logical connectives.
11349 True if @var{expr} is false.
11351 @item @var{expr1} -a @var{expr2}
11353 @cindex logical and operator
11354 @cindex and operator
11355 True if both @var{expr1} and @var{expr2} are true.
11357 @item @var{expr1} -o @var{expr2}
11359 @cindex logical or operator
11360 @cindex or operator
11361 True if either @var{expr1} or @var{expr2} is true.
11366 @node expr invocation
11367 @section @command{expr}: Evaluate expressions
11370 @cindex expression evaluation
11371 @cindex evaluation of expressions
11373 @command{expr} evaluates an expression and writes the result on standard
11374 output. Each token of the expression must be a separate argument.
11376 Operands are either integers or strings. Integers consist of one or
11377 more decimal digits, with an optional leading @samp{-}.
11378 @command{expr} converts
11379 anything appearing in an operand position to an integer or a string
11380 depending on the operation being applied to it.
11382 Strings are not quoted for @command{expr} itself, though you may need to
11383 quote them to protect characters with special meaning to the shell,
11384 e.g., spaces. However, regardless of whether it is quoted, a string
11385 operand should not be a parenthesis or any of @command{expr}'s
11386 operators like @code{+}, so you cannot safely pass an arbitrary string
11387 @code{$str} to expr merely by quoting it to the shell. One way to
11388 work around this is to use the @sc{gnu} extension @code{+},
11389 (e.g., @code{+ "$str" = foo}); a more portable way is to use
11390 @code{@w{" $str"}} and to adjust the rest of the expression to take
11391 the leading space into account (e.g., @code{@w{" $str" = " foo"}}).
11393 You should not pass a negative integer or a string with leading
11394 @samp{-} as @command{expr}'s first argument, as it might be
11395 misinterpreted as an option; this can be avoided by parenthesization.
11396 Also, portable scripts should not use a string operand that happens to
11397 take the form of an integer; this can be worked around by inserting
11398 leading spaces as mentioned above.
11400 @cindex parentheses for grouping
11401 Operators may be given as infix symbols or prefix keywords. Parentheses
11402 may be used for grouping in the usual manner. You must quote
11403 parentheses and many operators to avoid the shell evaluating them,
11406 When built with support for the GNU MP library, @command{expr} uses
11407 arbitrary-precision arithmetic; otherwise, it uses native arithmetic
11408 types and may fail due to arithmetic overflow.
11410 The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}. @xref{Common
11411 options}. Options must precede operands.
11413 @cindex exit status of @command{expr}
11417 0 if the expression is neither null nor 0,
11418 1 if the expression is null or 0,
11419 2 if the expression is invalid,
11420 3 if an internal error occurred (e.g., arithmetic overflow).
11424 * String expressions:: + : match substr index length
11425 * Numeric expressions:: + - * / %
11426 * Relations for expr:: | & < <= = == != >= >
11427 * Examples of expr:: Examples.
11431 @node String expressions
11432 @subsection String expressions
11434 @cindex string expressions
11435 @cindex expressions, string
11437 @command{expr} supports pattern matching and other string operators. These
11438 have higher precedence than both the numeric and relational operators (in
11439 the next sections).
11443 @item @var{string} : @var{regex}
11444 @cindex pattern matching
11445 @cindex regular expression matching
11446 @cindex matching patterns
11447 Perform pattern matching. The arguments are converted to strings and the
11448 second is considered to be a (basic, a la GNU @code{grep}) regular
11449 expression, with a @code{^} implicitly prepended. The first argument is
11450 then matched against this regular expression.
11452 If the match succeeds and @var{regex} uses @samp{\(} and @samp{\)}, the
11453 @code{:} expression returns the part of @var{string} that matched the
11454 subexpression; otherwise, it returns the number of characters matched.
11456 If the match fails, the @code{:} operator returns the null string if
11457 @samp{\(} and @samp{\)} are used in @var{regex}, otherwise 0.
11459 @kindex \( @r{regexp operator}
11460 Only the first @samp{\( @dots{} \)} pair is relevant to the return
11461 value; additional pairs are meaningful only for grouping the regular
11462 expression operators.
11464 @kindex \+ @r{regexp operator}
11465 @kindex \? @r{regexp operator}
11466 @kindex \| @r{regexp operator}
11467 In the regular expression, @code{\+}, @code{\?}, and @code{\|} are
11468 operators which respectively match one or more, zero or one, or separate
11469 alternatives. SunOS and other @command{expr}'s treat these as regular
11470 characters. (@acronym{POSIX} allows either behavior.)
11471 @xref{Top, , Regular Expression Library, regex, Regex}, for details of
11472 regular expression syntax. Some examples are in @ref{Examples of expr}.
11474 @item match @var{string} @var{regex}
11476 An alternative way to do pattern matching. This is the same as
11477 @w{@samp{@var{string} : @var{regex}}}.
11479 @item substr @var{string} @var{position} @var{length}
11481 Returns the substring of @var{string} beginning at @var{position}
11482 with length at most @var{length}. If either @var{position} or
11483 @var{length} is negative, zero, or non-numeric, returns the null string.
11485 @item index @var{string} @var{charset}
11487 Returns the first position in @var{string} where the first character in
11488 @var{charset} was found. If no character in @var{charset} is found in
11489 @var{string}, return 0.
11491 @item length @var{string}
11493 Returns the length of @var{string}.
11495 @item + @var{token}
11497 Interpret @var{token} as a string, even if it is a keyword like @var{match}
11498 or an operator like @code{/}.
11499 This makes it possible to test @code{expr length + "$x"} or
11500 @code{expr + "$x" : '.*/\(.\)'} and have it do the right thing even if
11501 the value of @var{$x} happens to be (for example) @code{/} or @code{index}.
11502 This operator is a @acronym{GNU} extension. Portable shell scripts should use
11503 @code{@w{" $token"} : @w{' \(.*\)'}} instead of @code{+ "$token"}.
11507 To make @command{expr} interpret keywords as strings, you must use the
11508 @code{quote} operator.
11511 @node Numeric expressions
11512 @subsection Numeric expressions
11514 @cindex numeric expressions
11515 @cindex expressions, numeric
11517 @command{expr} supports the usual numeric operators, in order of increasing
11518 precedence. These numeric operators have lower precedence than the
11519 string operators described in the previous section, and higher precedence
11520 than the connectives (next section).
11528 @cindex subtraction
11529 Addition and subtraction. Both arguments are converted to integers;
11530 an error occurs if this cannot be done.
11536 @cindex multiplication
11539 Multiplication, division, remainder. Both arguments are converted to
11540 integers; an error occurs if this cannot be done.
11545 @node Relations for expr
11546 @subsection Relations for @command{expr}
11548 @cindex connectives, logical
11549 @cindex logical connectives
11550 @cindex relations, numeric or string
11552 @command{expr} supports the usual logical connectives and relations. These
11553 have lower precedence than the string and numeric operators
11554 (previous sections). Here is the list, lowest-precedence operator first.
11560 @cindex logical or operator
11561 @cindex or operator
11562 Returns its first argument if that is neither null nor zero, otherwise
11563 its second argument if it is neither null nor zero, otherwise 0. It
11564 does not evaluate its second argument if its first argument is neither
11569 @cindex logical and operator
11570 @cindex and operator
11571 Return its first argument if neither argument is null or zero, otherwise
11572 0. It does not evaluate its second argument if its first argument is
11575 @item < <= = == != >= >
11582 @cindex comparison operators
11584 Compare the arguments and return 1 if the relation is true, 0 otherwise.
11585 @code{==} is a synonym for @code{=}. @command{expr} first tries to convert
11586 both arguments to integers and do a numeric comparison; if either
11587 conversion fails, it does a lexicographic comparison using the character
11588 collating sequence specified by the @env{LC_COLLATE} locale.
11593 @node Examples of expr
11594 @subsection Examples of using @command{expr}
11596 @cindex examples of @command{expr}
11597 Here are a few examples, including quoting for shell metacharacters.
11599 To add 1 to the shell variable @code{foo}, in Bourne-compatible shells:
11602 foo=`expr $foo + 1`
11605 To print the non-directory part of the file name stored in
11606 @code{$fname}, which need not contain a @code{/}:
11609 expr $fname : '.*/\(.*\)' '|' $fname
11612 An example showing that @code{\+} is an operator:
11620 expr abc : 'a\(.\)c'
11622 expr index abcdef cz
11625 @error{} expr: syntax error
11626 expr index + index a
11632 @chapter Redirection
11634 @cindex redirection
11635 @cindex commands for redirection
11637 Unix shells commonly provide several forms of @dfn{redirection}---ways
11638 to change the input source or output destination of a command. But one
11639 useful redirection is performed by a separate command, not by the shell;
11640 it's described here.
11643 * tee invocation:: Redirect output to multiple files or processes.
11647 @node tee invocation
11648 @section @command{tee}: Redirect output to multiple files or processes
11651 @cindex pipe fitting
11652 @cindex destinations, multiple output
11653 @cindex read from stdin and write to stdout and files
11655 The @command{tee} command copies standard input to standard output and also
11656 to any files given as arguments. This is useful when you want not only
11657 to send some data down a pipe, but also to save a copy. Synopsis:
11660 tee [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
11663 If a file being written to does not already exist, it is created. If a
11664 file being written to already exists, the data it previously contained
11665 is overwritten unless the @option{-a} option is used.
11667 A @var{file} of @samp{-} causes @command{tee} to send another copy of
11668 input to standard output, but this is typically not that useful as the
11669 copies are interleaved.
11671 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
11678 Append standard input to the given files rather than overwriting
11682 @itemx --ignore-interrupts
11684 @opindex --ignore-interrupts
11685 Ignore interrupt signals.
11689 The @command{tee} command is useful when you happen to be transferring a large
11690 amount of data and also want to summarize that data without reading
11691 it a second time. For example, when you are downloading a DVD image,
11692 you often want to verify its signature or checksum right away.
11693 The inefficient way to do it is simply:
11696 wget http://example.com/some.iso && sha1sum some.iso
11699 One problem with the above is that it makes you wait for the
11700 download to complete before starting the time-consuming SHA1 computation.
11701 Perhaps even more importantly, the above requires reading
11702 the DVD image a second time (the first was from the network).
11704 The efficient way to do it is to interleave the download
11705 and SHA1 computation. Then, you'll get the checksum for
11706 free, because the entire process parallelizes so well:
11709 # slightly contrived, to demonstrate process substitution
11710 wget -O - http://example.com/dvd.iso \
11711 | tee >(sha1sum > dvd.sha1) > dvd.iso
11714 That makes @command{tee} write not just to the expected output file,
11715 but also to a pipe running @command{sha1sum} and saving the final
11716 checksum in a file named @file{dvd.sha1}.
11718 Note, however, that this example relies on a feature of modern shells
11719 called @dfn{process substitution}
11720 (the @samp{>(command)} syntax, above;
11721 @xref{Process Substitution,,Process Substitution, bashref,
11722 The Bash Reference Manual}.),
11723 so it works with @command{zsh}, @command{bash}, and @command{ksh},
11724 but not with @command{/bin/sh}. So if you write code like this
11725 in a shell script, be sure to start the script with @samp{#!/bin/bash}.
11727 Since the above example writes to one file and one process,
11728 a more conventional and portable use of @command{tee} is even better:
11731 wget -O - http://example.com/dvd.iso \
11732 | tee dvd.iso | sha1sum > dvd.sha1
11735 You can extend this example to make @command{tee} write to two processes,
11736 computing MD5 and SHA1 checksums in parallel. In this case,
11737 process substitution is required:
11740 wget -O - http://example.com/dvd.iso \
11741 | tee >(sha1sum > dvd.sha1) \
11742 >(md5sum > dvd.md5) \
11746 This technique is also useful when you want to make a @emph{compressed}
11747 copy of the contents of a pipe.
11748 Consider a tool to graphically summarize disk usage data from @samp{du -ak}.
11749 For a large hierarchy, @samp{du -ak} can run for a long time,
11750 and can easily produce terabytes of data, so you won't want to
11751 rerun the command unnecessarily. Nor will you want to save
11752 the uncompressed output.
11754 Doing it the inefficient way, you can't even start the GUI
11755 until after you've compressed all of the @command{du} output:
11758 du -ak | gzip -9 > /tmp/du.gz
11759 gzip -d /tmp/du.gz | xdiskusage -a
11762 With @command{tee} and process substitution, you start the GUI
11763 right away and eliminate the decompression completely:
11766 du -ak | tee >(gzip -9 > /tmp/du.gz) | xdiskusage -a
11769 Finally, if you regularly create more than one type of
11770 compressed tarball at once, for example when @code{make dist} creates
11771 both @command{gzip}-compressed and @command{bzip2}-compressed tarballs,
11772 there may be a better way.
11773 Typical @command{automake}-generated @file{Makefile} rules create
11774 the two compressed tar archives with commands in sequence, like this
11775 (slightly simplified):
11778 tardir=your-pkg-M.N
11779 tar chof - "$tardir" | gzip -9 -c > your-pkg-M.N.tar.gz
11780 tar chof - "$tardir" | bzip2 -9 -c > your-pkg-M.N.tar.bz2
11783 However, if the hierarchy you are archiving and compressing is larger
11784 than a couple megabytes, and especially if you are using a multi-processor
11785 system with plenty of memory, then you can do much better by reading the
11786 directory contents only once and running the compression programs in parallel:
11789 tardir=your-pkg-M.N
11790 tar chof - "$tardir" \
11791 | tee >(gzip -9 -c > your-pkg-M.N.tar.gz) \
11792 | bzip2 -9 -c > your-pkg-M.N.tar.bz2
11798 @node File name manipulation
11799 @chapter File name manipulation
11801 @cindex file name manipulation
11802 @cindex manipulation of file names
11803 @cindex commands for file name manipulation
11805 This section describes commands that manipulate file names.
11808 * basename invocation:: Strip directory and suffix from a file name.
11809 * dirname invocation:: Strip non-directory suffix from a file name.
11810 * pathchk invocation:: Check file name validity and portability.
11814 @node basename invocation
11815 @section @command{basename}: Strip directory and suffix from a file name
11818 @cindex strip directory and suffix from file names
11819 @cindex directory, stripping from file names
11820 @cindex suffix, stripping from file names
11821 @cindex file names, stripping directory and suffix
11822 @cindex leading directory components, stripping
11824 @command{basename} removes any leading directory components from
11825 @var{name}. Synopsis:
11828 basename @var{name} [@var{suffix}]
11831 If @var{suffix} is specified and is identical to the end of @var{name},
11832 it is removed from @var{name} as well. Note that since trailing slashes
11833 are removed prior to suffix matching, @var{suffix} will do nothing if it
11834 contains slashes. @command{basename} prints the result on standard
11837 @c This test is used both here and in the section on dirname.
11838 @macro basenameAndDirname
11839 Together, @command{basename} and @command{dirname} are designed such
11840 that if @samp{ls "$name"} succeeds, then the command sequence @samp{cd
11841 "$(dirname "$name")"; ls "$(basename "$name")"} will, too. This works
11842 for everything except file names containing a trailing newline.
11844 @basenameAndDirname
11846 @acronym{POSIX} allows the implementation to define the results if
11847 @var{name} is empty or @samp{//}. In the former case, @acronym{GNU}
11848 @command{basename} returns the empty string. In the latter case, the
11849 result is @samp{//} on platforms where @var{//} is distinct from
11850 @var{/}, and @samp{/} on platforms where there is no difference.
11852 The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}. @xref{Common
11853 options}. Options must precede operands.
11861 basename /usr/bin/sort
11864 basename include/stdio.h .h
11868 @node dirname invocation
11869 @section @command{dirname}: Strip non-directory suffix from a file name
11872 @cindex directory components, printing
11873 @cindex stripping non-directory suffix
11874 @cindex non-directory suffix, stripping
11876 @command{dirname} prints all but the final slash-delimited component of
11877 a string (presumably a file name). Synopsis:
11883 If @var{name} is a single component, @command{dirname} prints @samp{.}
11884 (meaning the current directory).
11886 @basenameAndDirname
11888 @acronym{POSIX} allows the implementation to define the results if
11889 @var{name} is @samp{//}. With @acronym{GNU} @command{dirname}, the
11890 result is @samp{//} on platforms where @var{//} is distinct from
11891 @var{/}, and @samp{/} on platforms where there is no difference.
11893 The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}. @xref{Common
11901 # Output "/usr/bin".
11902 dirname /usr/bin/sort
11909 @node pathchk invocation
11910 @section @command{pathchk}: Check file name validity and portability
11913 @cindex file names, checking validity and portability
11914 @cindex valid file names, checking for
11915 @cindex portable file names, checking for
11917 @command{pathchk} checks validity and portability of file names. Synopsis:
11920 pathchk [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{name}@dots{}
11923 For each @var{name}, @command{pathchk} prints an error message if any of
11924 these conditions is true:
11928 One of the existing directories in @var{name} does not have search
11929 (execute) permission,
11931 The length of @var{name} is larger than the maximum supported by the
11934 The length of one component of @var{name} is longer than
11935 its file system's maximum.
11938 A nonexistent @var{name} is not an error, so long a file with that
11939 name could be created under the above conditions.
11941 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
11942 Options must precede operands.
11948 Instead of performing checks based on the underlying file system,
11949 print an error message if any of these conditions is true:
11953 A file name is empty.
11956 A file name contains a character outside the @acronym{POSIX} portable file
11957 name character set, namely, the ASCII letters and digits, @samp{.},
11958 @samp{_}, @samp{-}, and @samp{/}.
11961 The length of a file name or one of its components exceeds the
11962 @acronym{POSIX} minimum limits for portability.
11967 Print an error message if a file name is empty, or if it contains a component
11968 that begins with @samp{-}.
11970 @item --portability
11971 @opindex --portability
11972 Print an error message if a file name is not portable to all @acronym{POSIX}
11973 hosts. This option is equivalent to @samp{-p -P}.
11977 @cindex exit status of @command{pathchk}
11981 0 if all specified file names passed all checks,
11986 @node Working context
11987 @chapter Working context
11989 @cindex working context
11990 @cindex commands for printing the working context
11992 This section describes commands that display or alter the context in
11993 which you are working: the current directory, the terminal settings, and
11994 so forth. See also the user-related commands in the next section.
11997 * pwd invocation:: Print working directory.
11998 * stty invocation:: Print or change terminal characteristics.
11999 * printenv invocation:: Print environment variables.
12000 * tty invocation:: Print file name of terminal on standard input.
12004 @node pwd invocation
12005 @section @command{pwd}: Print working directory
12008 @cindex print name of current directory
12009 @cindex current working directory, printing
12010 @cindex working directory, printing
12013 @command{pwd} prints the name of the current directory. Synopsis:
12016 pwd [@var{option}]@dots{}
12019 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
12026 If the contents of the environment variable @env{PWD} provide an
12027 absolute name of the current directory with no @samp{.} or @samp{..}
12028 components, but possibly with symbolic links, then output those
12029 contents. Otherwise, fall back to default @option{-P} handling.
12034 @opindex --physical
12035 Print a fully resolved name for the current directory. That is, all
12036 components of the printed name will be actual directory names---none
12037 will be symbolic links.
12040 @cindex symbolic links and @command{pwd}
12041 If @option{-L} and @option{-P} are both given, the last one takes
12042 precedence. If neither option is given, then this implementation uses
12043 @option{-P} as the default unless the @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT}
12044 environment variable is set.
12046 @mayConflictWithShellBuiltIn{pwd}
12051 @node stty invocation
12052 @section @command{stty}: Print or change terminal characteristics
12055 @cindex change or print terminal settings
12056 @cindex terminal settings
12057 @cindex line settings of terminal
12059 @command{stty} prints or changes terminal characteristics, such as baud rate.
12063 stty [@var{option}] [@var{setting}]@dots{}
12064 stty [@var{option}]
12067 If given no line settings, @command{stty} prints the baud rate, line
12068 discipline number (on systems that support it), and line settings
12069 that have been changed from the values set by @samp{stty sane}.
12070 By default, mode reading and setting are performed on the tty line
12071 connected to standard input, although this can be modified by the
12072 @option{--file} option.
12074 @command{stty} accepts many non-option arguments that change aspects of
12075 the terminal line operation, as described below.
12077 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
12084 Print all current settings in human-readable form. This option may not
12085 be used in combination with any line settings.
12087 @item -F @var{device}
12088 @itemx --file=@var{device}
12091 Set the line opened by the file name specified in @var{device} instead of
12092 the tty line connected to standard input. This option is necessary
12093 because opening a @acronym{POSIX} tty requires use of the @code{O_NONDELAY} flag to
12094 prevent a @acronym{POSIX} tty from blocking until the carrier detect line is high if
12095 the @code{clocal} flag is not set. Hence, it is not always possible
12096 to allow the shell to open the device in the traditional manner.
12102 @cindex machine-readable @command{stty} output
12103 Print all current settings in a form that can be used as an argument to
12104 another @command{stty} command to restore the current settings. This option
12105 may not be used in combination with any line settings.
12109 Many settings can be turned off by preceding them with a @samp{-}.
12110 Such arguments are marked below with ``May be negated'' in their
12111 description. The descriptions themselves refer to the positive
12112 case, that is, when @emph{not} negated (unless stated otherwise,
12115 Some settings are not available on all @acronym{POSIX} systems, since they use
12116 extensions. Such arguments are marked below with ``Non-@acronym{POSIX}'' in their
12117 description. On non-@acronym{POSIX} systems, those or other settings also may not
12118 be available, but it's not feasible to document all the variations: just
12124 * Control:: Control settings
12125 * Input:: Input settings
12126 * Output:: Output settings
12127 * Local:: Local settings
12128 * Combination:: Combination settings
12129 * Characters:: Special characters
12130 * Special:: Special settings
12135 @subsection Control settings
12137 @cindex control settings
12143 @cindex two-way parity
12144 Generate parity bit in output and expect parity bit in input.
12150 @cindex even parity
12151 Set odd parity (even if negated). May be negated.
12158 @cindex character size
12159 @cindex eight-bit characters
12160 Set character size to 5, 6, 7, or 8 bits.
12165 Send a hangup signal when the last process closes the tty. May be
12171 Use two stop bits per character (one if negated). May be negated.
12175 Allow input to be received. May be negated.
12179 @cindex modem control
12180 Disable modem control signals. May be negated.
12184 @cindex hardware flow control
12185 @cindex flow control, hardware
12186 @cindex RTS/CTS flow control
12187 Enable RTS/CTS flow control. Non-@acronym{POSIX}. May be negated.
12192 @subsection Input settings
12194 @cindex input settings
12195 These settings control operations on data received from the terminal.
12200 @cindex breaks, ignoring
12201 Ignore break characters. May be negated.
12205 @cindex breaks, cause interrupts
12206 Make breaks cause an interrupt signal. May be negated.
12210 @cindex parity, ignoring
12211 Ignore characters with parity errors. May be negated.
12215 @cindex parity errors, marking
12216 Mark parity errors (with a 255-0-character sequence). May be negated.
12220 Enable input parity checking. May be negated.
12224 @cindex eight-bit input
12225 Clear high (8th) bit of input characters. May be negated.
12229 @cindex newline, translating to return
12230 Translate newline to carriage return. May be negated.
12234 @cindex return, ignoring
12235 Ignore carriage return. May be negated.
12239 @cindex return, translating to newline
12240 Translate carriage return to newline. May be negated.
12244 @cindex input encoding, UTF-8
12245 Assume input characters are UTF-8 encoded. May be negated.
12249 @kindex C-s/C-q flow control
12250 @cindex XON/XOFF flow control
12251 Enable XON/XOFF flow control (that is, @kbd{CTRL-S}/@kbd{CTRL-Q}). May
12258 @cindex software flow control
12259 @cindex flow control, software
12260 Enable sending of @code{stop} character when the system input buffer
12261 is almost full, and @code{start} character when it becomes almost
12262 empty again. May be negated.
12266 @cindex uppercase, translating to lowercase
12267 Translate uppercase characters to lowercase. Non-@acronym{POSIX}. May be
12268 negated. Note ilcuc is not implemented, as one would not be able to issue
12269 almost any (lowercase) Unix command, after invoking it.
12273 Allow any character to restart output (only the start character
12274 if negated). Non-@acronym{POSIX}. May be negated.
12278 @cindex beeping at input buffer full
12279 Enable beeping and not flushing input buffer if a character arrives
12280 when the input buffer is full. Non-@acronym{POSIX}. May be negated.
12285 @subsection Output settings
12287 @cindex output settings
12288 These settings control operations on data sent to the terminal.
12293 Postprocess output. May be negated.
12297 @cindex lowercase, translating to output
12298 Translate lowercase characters to uppercase. Non-@acronym{POSIX}. May be
12299 negated. (Note ouclc is not currently implemented.)
12303 @cindex return, translating to newline
12304 Translate carriage return to newline. Non-@acronym{POSIX}. May be negated.
12308 @cindex newline, translating to crlf
12309 Translate newline to carriage return-newline. Non-@acronym{POSIX}. May be
12314 Do not print carriage returns in the first column. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12319 Newline performs a carriage return. Non-@acronym{POSIX}. May be negated.
12323 @cindex pad instead of timing for delaying
12324 Use fill (padding) characters instead of timing for delays. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12329 @cindex pad character
12330 Use @acronym{ASCII} @sc{del} characters for fill instead of
12331 @acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul} characters. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12337 Newline delay style. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12344 Carriage return delay style. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12350 @opindex tab@var{n}
12351 Horizontal tab delay style. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12356 Backspace delay style. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12361 Vertical tab delay style. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12366 Form feed delay style. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12371 @subsection Local settings
12373 @cindex local settings
12378 Enable @code{interrupt}, @code{quit}, and @code{suspend} special
12379 characters. May be negated.
12383 Enable @code{erase}, @code{kill}, @code{werase}, and @code{rprnt}
12384 special characters. May be negated.
12388 Enable non-@acronym{POSIX} special characters. May be negated.
12392 Echo input characters. May be negated.
12398 Echo @code{erase} characters as backspace-space-backspace. May be
12403 @cindex newline echoing after @code{kill}
12404 Echo a newline after a @code{kill} character. May be negated.
12408 @cindex newline, echoing
12409 Echo newline even if not echoing other characters. May be negated.
12413 @cindex flushing, disabling
12414 Disable flushing after @code{interrupt} and @code{quit} special
12415 characters. May be negated.
12419 @cindex case translation
12420 Enable input and output of uppercase characters by preceding their
12421 lowercase equivalents with @samp{\}, when @code{icanon} is set.
12422 Non-@acronym{POSIX}. May be negated.
12426 @cindex background jobs, stopping at terminal write
12427 Stop background jobs that try to write to the terminal. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12434 Echo erased characters backward, between @samp{\} and @samp{/}.
12435 Non-@acronym{POSIX}. May be negated.
12441 @cindex control characters, using @samp{^@var{c}}
12442 @cindex hat notation for control characters
12443 Echo control characters in hat notation (@samp{^@var{c}}) instead
12444 of literally. Non-@acronym{POSIX}. May be negated.
12450 Echo the @code{kill} special character by erasing each character on
12451 the line as indicated by the @code{echoprt} and @code{echoe} settings,
12452 instead of by the @code{echoctl} and @code{echok} settings. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12458 @subsection Combination settings
12460 @cindex combination settings
12461 Combination settings:
12468 Same as @code{parenb -parodd cs7}. May be negated. If negated, same
12469 as @code{-parenb cs8}.
12473 Same as @code{parenb parodd cs7}. May be negated. If negated, same
12474 as @code{-parenb cs8}.
12478 Same as @code{-icrnl -onlcr}. May be negated. If negated, same as
12479 @code{icrnl -inlcr -igncr onlcr -ocrnl -onlret}.
12483 Reset the @code{erase} and @code{kill} special characters to their default
12490 @c This is too long to write inline.
12492 cread -ignbrk brkint -inlcr -igncr icrnl -ixoff
12493 -iuclc -ixany imaxbel opost -olcuc -ocrnl onlcr
12494 -onocr -onlret -ofill -ofdel nl0 cr0 tab0 bs0 vt0
12495 ff0 isig icanon iexten echo echoe echok -echonl
12496 -noflsh -xcase -tostop -echoprt echoctl echoke
12500 and also sets all special characters to their default values.
12504 Same as @code{brkint ignpar istrip icrnl ixon opost isig icanon}, plus
12505 sets the @code{eof} and @code{eol} characters to their default values
12506 if they are the same as the @code{min} and @code{time} characters.
12507 May be negated. If negated, same as @code{raw}.
12514 -ignbrk -brkint -ignpar -parmrk -inpck -istrip
12515 -inlcr -igncr -icrnl -ixon -ixoff -iuclc -ixany
12516 -imaxbel -opost -isig -icanon -xcase min 1 time 0
12520 May be negated. If negated, same as @code{cooked}.
12524 Same as @option{-icanon}. May be negated. If negated, same as
12529 @cindex eight-bit characters
12530 Same as @code{-parenb -istrip cs8}. May be negated. If negated,
12531 same as @code{parenb istrip cs7}.
12535 Same as @option{-parenb -istrip -opost cs8}. May be negated.
12536 If negated, same as @code{parenb istrip opost cs7}.
12540 Same as @option{-ixany}. Non-@acronym{POSIX}. May be negated.
12544 Same as @code{tab0}. Non-@acronym{POSIX}. May be negated. If negated, same
12551 Same as @code{xcase iuclc olcuc}. Non-@acronym{POSIX}. May be negated.
12552 (Used for terminals with uppercase characters only.)
12556 Same as @code{echoe echoctl echoke}.
12560 Same as @code{echoe echoctl echoke -ixany intr ^C erase ^? kill C-u}.
12565 @subsection Special characters
12567 @cindex special characters
12568 @cindex characters, special
12570 The special characters' default values vary from system to system.
12571 They are set with the syntax @samp{name value}, where the names are
12572 listed below and the value can be given either literally, in hat
12573 notation (@samp{^@var{c}}), or as an integer which may start with
12574 @samp{0x} to indicate hexadecimal, @samp{0} to indicate octal, or
12575 any other digit to indicate decimal.
12577 @cindex disabling special characters
12578 @kindex u@r{, and disabling special characters}
12579 For GNU stty, giving a value of @code{^-} or @code{undef} disables that
12580 special character. (This is incompatible with Ultrix @command{stty},
12581 which uses a value of @samp{u} to disable a special character. GNU
12582 @command{stty} treats a value @samp{u} like any other, namely to set that
12583 special character to @key{U}.)
12589 Send an interrupt signal.
12593 Send a quit signal.
12597 Erase the last character typed.
12601 Erase the current line.
12605 Send an end of file (terminate the input).
12613 Alternate character to end the line. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12617 Switch to a different shell layer. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12621 Restart the output after stopping it.
12629 Send a terminal stop signal.
12633 Send a terminal stop signal after flushing the input. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12637 Redraw the current line. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12641 Erase the last word typed. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12645 Enter the next character typed literally, even if it is a special
12646 character. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12651 @subsection Special settings
12653 @cindex special settings
12658 Set the minimum number of characters that will satisfy a read until
12659 the time value has expired, when @option{-icanon} is set.
12663 Set the number of tenths of a second before reads time out if the minimum
12664 number of characters have not been read, when @option{-icanon} is set.
12666 @item ispeed @var{n}
12668 Set the input speed to @var{n}.
12670 @item ospeed @var{n}
12672 Set the output speed to @var{n}.
12676 Tell the tty kernel driver that the terminal has @var{n} rows. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12679 @itemx columns @var{n}
12682 Tell the kernel that the terminal has @var{n} columns. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12688 Print the number of rows and columns that the kernel thinks the
12689 terminal has. (Systems that don't support rows and columns in the kernel
12690 typically use the environment variables @env{LINES} and @env{COLUMNS}
12691 instead; however, GNU @command{stty} does not know anything about them.)
12692 Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12696 Use line discipline @var{n}. Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
12700 Print the terminal speed.
12703 @cindex baud rate, setting
12704 Set the input and output speeds to @var{n}. @var{n} can be one of: 0
12705 50 75 110 134 134.5 150 200 300 600 1200 1800 2400 4800 9600 19200
12706 38400 @code{exta} @code{extb}. @code{exta} is the same as 19200;
12707 @code{extb} is the same as 38400. Many systems, including GNU/Linux,
12708 support higher speeds. The @command{stty} command includes support
12725 4000000 where the system supports these.
12726 0 hangs up the line if @option{-clocal} is set.
12730 @node printenv invocation
12731 @section @command{printenv}: Print all or some environment variables
12734 @cindex printing all or some environment variables
12735 @cindex environment variables, printing
12737 @command{printenv} prints environment variable values. Synopsis:
12740 printenv [@var{option}] [@var{variable}]@dots{}
12743 If no @var{variable}s are specified, @command{printenv} prints the value of
12744 every environment variable. Otherwise, it prints the value of each
12745 @var{variable} that is set, and nothing for those that are not set.
12747 The only options are a lone @option{--help} or @option{--version}.
12748 @xref{Common options}.
12750 @cindex exit status of @command{printenv}
12754 0 if all variables specified were found
12755 1 if at least one specified variable was not found
12756 2 if a write error occurred
12760 @node tty invocation
12761 @section @command{tty}: Print file name of terminal on standard input
12764 @cindex print terminal file name
12765 @cindex terminal file name, printing
12767 @command{tty} prints the file name of the terminal connected to its standard
12768 input. It prints @samp{not a tty} if standard input is not a terminal.
12772 tty [@var{option}]@dots{}
12775 The program accepts the following option. Also see @ref{Common options}.
12785 Print nothing; only return an exit status.
12789 @cindex exit status of @command{tty}
12793 0 if standard input is a terminal
12794 1 if standard input is not a terminal
12795 2 if given incorrect arguments
12796 3 if a write error occurs
12800 @node User information
12801 @chapter User information
12803 @cindex user information, commands for
12804 @cindex commands for printing user information
12806 This section describes commands that print user-related information:
12807 logins, groups, and so forth.
12810 * id invocation:: Print user identity.
12811 * logname invocation:: Print current login name.
12812 * whoami invocation:: Print effective user ID.
12813 * groups invocation:: Print group names a user is in.
12814 * users invocation:: Print login names of users currently logged in.
12815 * who invocation:: Print who is currently logged in.
12819 @node id invocation
12820 @section @command{id}: Print user identity
12823 @cindex real user and group IDs, printing
12824 @cindex effective user and group IDs, printing
12825 @cindex printing real and effective user and group IDs
12827 @command{id} prints information about the given user, or the process
12828 running it if no user is specified. Synopsis:
12831 id [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{username}]
12834 By default, it prints the real user ID, real group ID, effective user ID
12835 if different from the real user ID, effective group ID if different from
12836 the real group ID, and supplemental group IDs.
12838 Each of these numeric values is preceded by an identifying string and
12839 followed by the corresponding user or group name in parentheses.
12841 The options cause @command{id} to print only part of the above information.
12842 Also see @ref{Common options}.
12849 Print only the group ID.
12855 Print only the group ID and the supplementary groups.
12861 Print the user or group name instead of the ID number. Requires
12862 @option{-u}, @option{-g}, or @option{-G}.
12868 Print the real, instead of effective, user or group ID. Requires
12869 @option{-u}, @option{-g}, or @option{-G}.
12875 Print only the user ID.
12882 @cindex security context
12883 Print only the security context of the current user.
12884 If SELinux is disabled then print a warning and
12885 set the exit status to 1.
12891 @macro primaryAndSupplementaryGroups{cmd,arg}
12892 Primary and supplementary groups for a process are normally inherited
12893 from its parent and are usually unchanged since login. This means
12894 that if you change the group database after logging in, @command{\cmd\}
12895 will not reflect your changes within your existing login session.
12896 Running @command{\cmd\} with a \arg\ causes the user and group
12897 database to be consulted afresh, and so will give a different result.
12899 @primaryAndSupplementaryGroups{id,user argument}
12901 @node logname invocation
12902 @section @command{logname}: Print current login name
12905 @cindex printing user's login name
12906 @cindex login name, printing
12907 @cindex user name, printing
12910 @command{logname} prints the calling user's name, as found in a
12911 system-maintained file (often @file{/var/run/utmp} or
12912 @file{/etc/utmp}), and exits with a status of 0. If there is no entry
12913 for the calling process, @command{logname} prints
12914 an error message and exits with a status of 1.
12916 The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}. @xref{Common
12922 @node whoami invocation
12923 @section @command{whoami}: Print effective user ID
12926 @cindex effective user ID, printing
12927 @cindex printing the effective user ID
12929 @command{whoami} prints the user name associated with the current
12930 effective user ID. It is equivalent to the command @samp{id -un}.
12932 The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}. @xref{Common
12938 @node groups invocation
12939 @section @command{groups}: Print group names a user is in
12942 @cindex printing groups a user is in
12943 @cindex supplementary groups, printing
12945 @command{groups} prints the names of the primary and any supplementary
12946 groups for each given @var{username}, or the current process if no names
12947 are given. If more than one name is given, the name of each user is
12949 the list of that user's groups and the user name is separated from the
12950 group list by a colon. Synopsis:
12953 groups [@var{username}]@dots{}
12956 The group lists are equivalent to the output of the command @samp{id -Gn}.
12958 @primaryAndSupplementaryGroups{groups,list of users}
12960 The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}. @xref{Common
12966 @node users invocation
12967 @section @command{users}: Print login names of users currently logged in
12970 @cindex printing current usernames
12971 @cindex usernames, printing current
12973 @cindex login sessions, printing users with
12974 @command{users} prints on a single line a blank-separated list of user
12975 names of users currently logged in to the current host. Each user name
12976 corresponds to a login session, so if a user has more than one login
12977 session, that user's name will appear the same number of times in the
12986 With no @var{file} argument, @command{users} extracts its information from
12987 a system-maintained file (often @file{/var/run/utmp} or
12988 @file{/etc/utmp}). If a file argument is given, @command{users} uses
12989 that file instead. A common choice is @file{/var/log/wtmp}.
12991 The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}. @xref{Common
12997 @node who invocation
12998 @section @command{who}: Print who is currently logged in
13001 @cindex printing current user information
13002 @cindex information, about current users
13004 @command{who} prints information about users who are currently logged on.
13008 @command{who} [@var{option}] [@var{file}] [am i]
13011 @cindex terminal lines, currently used
13013 @cindex remote hostname
13014 If given no non-option arguments, @command{who} prints the following
13015 information for each user currently logged on: login name, terminal
13016 line, login time, and remote hostname or X display.
13020 If given one non-option argument, @command{who} uses that instead of
13021 a default system-maintained file (often @file{/var/run/utmp} or
13022 @file{/etc/utmp}) as the name of the file containing the record of
13023 users logged on. @file{/var/log/wtmp} is commonly given as an argument
13024 to @command{who} to look at who has previously logged on.
13028 If given two non-option arguments, @command{who} prints only the entry
13029 for the user running it (determined from its standard input), preceded
13030 by the hostname. Traditionally, the two arguments given are @samp{am
13031 i}, as in @samp{who am i}.
13034 Time stamps are listed according to the time zone rules specified by
13035 the @env{TZ} environment variable, or by the system default rules if
13036 @env{TZ} is not set. @xref{TZ Variable,, Specifying the Time Zone
13037 with @env{TZ}, libc, The GNU C Library Reference Manual}.
13039 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
13047 Same as @samp{-b -d --login -p -r -t -T -u}.
13053 Print the date and time of last system boot.
13059 Print information corresponding to dead processes.
13065 Print a line of column headings.
13071 List only the entries that correspond to processes via which the
13072 system is waiting for a user to login. The user name is always @samp{LOGIN}.
13076 Attempt to canonicalize hostnames found in utmp through a DNS lookup. This
13077 is not the default because it can cause significant delays on systems with
13078 automatic dial-up internet access.
13082 Same as @samp{who am i}.
13088 List active processes spawned by init.
13094 Print only the login names and the number of users logged on.
13095 Overrides all other options.
13100 @opindex --runlevel
13101 Print the current (and maybe previous) run-level of the init process.
13105 Ignored; for compatibility with other versions of @command{who}.
13111 Print last system clock change.
13116 After the login time, print the number of hours and minutes that the
13117 user has been idle. @samp{.} means the user was active in the last minute.
13118 @samp{old} means the user has been idle for more than 24 hours.
13129 @opindex --writable
13130 @cindex message status
13131 @pindex write@r{, allowed}
13132 After each login name print a character indicating the user's message status:
13135 @samp{+} allowing @code{write} messages
13136 @samp{-} disallowing @code{write} messages
13137 @samp{?} cannot find terminal device
13145 @node System context
13146 @chapter System context
13148 @cindex system context
13149 @cindex context, system
13150 @cindex commands for system context
13152 This section describes commands that print or change system-wide
13156 * date invocation:: Print or set system date and time.
13157 * arch invocation:: Print machine hardware name.
13158 * uname invocation:: Print system information.
13159 * hostname invocation:: Print or set system name.
13160 * hostid invocation:: Print numeric host identifier.
13161 * uptime invocation:: Print system uptime and load.
13164 @node date invocation
13165 @section @command{date}: Print or set system date and time
13168 @cindex time, printing or setting
13169 @cindex printing the current time
13174 date [@var{option}]@dots{} [+@var{format}]
13175 date [-u|--utc|--universal] @c this avoids a newline in the output
13176 [ MMDDhhmm[[CC]YY][.ss] ]
13180 Invoking @command{date} with no @var{format} argument is equivalent to invoking
13181 it with a default format that depends on the @env{LC_TIME} locale category.
13182 In the default C locale, this format is @samp{'+%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Z %Y'},
13183 so the output looks like @samp{Thu Mar @ 3 13:47:51 PST 2005}.
13186 Normally, @command{date} uses the time zone rules indicated by the
13187 @env{TZ} environment variable, or the system default rules if @env{TZ}
13188 is not set. @xref{TZ Variable,, Specifying the Time Zone with
13189 @env{TZ}, libc, The GNU C Library Reference Manual}.
13191 @findex strftime @r{and @command{date}}
13192 @cindex time formats
13193 @cindex formatting times
13194 If given an argument that starts with a @samp{+}, @command{date} prints the
13195 current date and time (or the date and time specified by the
13196 @option{--date} option, see below) in the format defined by that argument,
13197 which is similar to that of the @code{strftime} function. Except for
13198 conversion specifiers, which start with @samp{%}, characters in the
13199 format string are printed unchanged. The conversion specifiers are
13205 * Time conversion specifiers:: %[HIklMNpPrRsSTXzZ]
13206 * Date conversion specifiers:: %[aAbBcCdDeFgGhjmuUVwWxyY]
13207 * Literal conversion specifiers:: %[%nt]
13208 * Padding and other flags:: Pad with zeros, spaces, etc.
13209 * Setting the time:: Changing the system clock.
13210 * Options for date:: Instead of the current time.
13212 * Date input formats:: Specifying date strings.
13214 * Examples of date:: Examples.
13217 @node Time conversion specifiers
13218 @subsection Time conversion specifiers
13220 @cindex time conversion specifiers
13221 @cindex conversion specifiers, time
13223 @command{date} conversion specifiers related to times.
13227 hour (@samp{00}@dots{}@samp{23})
13229 hour (@samp{01}@dots{}@samp{12})
13231 hour (@samp{ 0}@dots{}@samp{23}).
13232 This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
13234 hour (@samp{ 1}@dots{}@samp{12}).
13235 This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
13237 minute (@samp{00}@dots{}@samp{59})
13239 nanoseconds (@samp{000000000}@dots{}@samp{999999999}).
13240 This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
13242 locale's equivalent of either @samp{AM} or @samp{PM};
13243 blank in many locales.
13244 Noon is treated as @samp{PM} and midnight as @samp{AM}.
13246 like @samp{%p}, except lower case.
13247 This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
13249 locale's 12-hour clock time (e.g., @samp{11:11:04 PM})
13251 24-hour hour and minute. Same as @samp{%H:%M}.
13252 This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
13254 @cindex epoch, seconds since
13255 @cindex seconds since the epoch
13256 @cindex beginning of time
13257 seconds since the epoch, i.e., since 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC.
13258 Leap seconds are not counted unless leap second support is available.
13259 @xref{%s-examples}, for examples.
13260 This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
13262 second (@samp{00}@dots{}@samp{60}).
13263 This may be @samp{60} if leap seconds are supported.
13265 24-hour hour, minute, and second. Same as @samp{%H:%M:%S}.
13267 locale's time representation (e.g., @samp{23:13:48})
13269 @w{@acronym{RFC} 2822/@acronym{ISO} 8601} style numeric time zone
13270 (e.g., @samp{-0600} or @samp{+0530}), or nothing if no
13271 time zone is determinable. This value reflects the numeric time zone
13272 appropriate for the current time, using the time zone rules specified
13273 by the @env{TZ} environment variable.
13274 The time (and optionally, the time zone rules) can be overridden
13275 by the @option{--date} option.
13276 This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
13278 @w{@acronym{RFC} 3339/@acronym{ISO} 8601} style numeric time zone with
13279 @samp{:} (e.g., @samp{-06:00} or @samp{+05:30}), or nothing if no time
13280 zone is determinable.
13281 This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
13283 Numeric time zone to the nearest second with @samp{:} (e.g.,
13284 @samp{-06:00:00} or @samp{+05:30:00}), or nothing if no time zone is
13286 This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
13288 Numeric time zone with @samp{:} using the minimum necessary precision
13289 (e.g., @samp{-06}, @samp{+05:30}, or @samp{-04:56:02}), or nothing if
13290 no time zone is determinable.
13291 This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
13293 alphabetic time zone abbreviation (e.g., @samp{EDT}), or nothing if no
13294 time zone is determinable. See @samp{%z} for how it is determined.
13298 @node Date conversion specifiers
13299 @subsection Date conversion specifiers
13301 @cindex date conversion specifiers
13302 @cindex conversion specifiers, date
13304 @command{date} conversion specifiers related to dates.
13308 locale's abbreviated weekday name (e.g., @samp{Sun})
13310 locale's full weekday name, variable length (e.g., @samp{Sunday})
13312 locale's abbreviated month name (e.g., @samp{Jan})
13314 locale's full month name, variable length (e.g., @samp{January})
13316 locale's date and time (e.g., @samp{Thu Mar @ 3 23:05:25 2005})
13318 century. This is like @samp{%Y}, except the last two digits are omitted.
13319 For example, it is @samp{20} if @samp{%Y} is @samp{2000},
13320 and is @samp{-0} if @samp{%Y} is @samp{-001}.
13321 It is normally at least two characters, but it may be more.
13323 day of month (e.g., @samp{01})
13325 date; same as @samp{%m/%d/%y}
13327 day of month, space padded; same as @samp{%_d}
13329 full date in @acronym{ISO} 8601 format; same as @samp{%Y-%m-%d}.
13330 This is a good choice for a date format, as it is standard and
13331 is easy to sort in the usual case where years are in the range
13333 This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
13335 year corresponding to the @acronym{ISO} week number, but without the century
13336 (range @samp{00} through @samp{99}). This has the same format and value
13337 as @samp{%y}, except that if the @acronym{ISO} week number (see
13339 to the previous or next year, that year is used instead.
13340 This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
13342 year corresponding to the @acronym{ISO} week number. This has the
13343 same format and value as @samp{%Y}, except that if the @acronym{ISO}
13345 @samp{%V}) belongs to the previous or next year, that year is used
13347 It is normally useful only if @samp{%V} is also used;
13348 for example, the format @samp{%G-%m-%d} is probably a mistake,
13349 since it combines the ISO week number year with the conventional month and day.
13350 This is a @acronym{GNU} extension.
13354 day of year (@samp{001}@dots{}@samp{366})
13356 month (@samp{01}@dots{}@samp{12})
13358 day of week (@samp{1}@dots{}@samp{7}) with @samp{1} corresponding to Monday
13360 week number of year, with Sunday as the first day of the week
13361 (@samp{00}@dots{}@samp{53}).
13362 Days in a new year preceding the first Sunday are in week zero.
13364 @acronym{ISO} week number, that is, the
13365 week number of year, with Monday as the first day of the week
13366 (@samp{01}@dots{}@samp{53}).
13367 If the week containing January 1 has four or more days in
13368 the new year, then it is considered week 1; otherwise, it is week 53 of
13369 the previous year, and the next week is week 1. (See the @acronym{ISO} 8601
13372 day of week (@samp{0}@dots{}@samp{6}) with 0 corresponding to Sunday
13374 week number of year, with Monday as first day of week
13375 (@samp{00}@dots{}@samp{53}).
13376 Days in a new year preceding the first Monday are in week zero.
13378 locale's date representation (e.g., @samp{12/31/99})
13380 last two digits of year (@samp{00}@dots{}@samp{99})
13382 year. This is normally at least four characters, but it may be more.
13383 Year @samp{0000} precedes year @samp{0001}, and year @samp{-001}
13384 precedes year @samp{0000}.
13388 @node Literal conversion specifiers
13389 @subsection Literal conversion specifiers
13391 @cindex literal conversion specifiers
13392 @cindex conversion specifiers, literal
13394 @command{date} conversion specifiers that produce literal strings.
13406 @node Padding and other flags
13407 @subsection Padding and other flags
13409 @cindex numeric field padding
13410 @cindex padding of numeric fields
13411 @cindex fields, padding numeric
13413 Unless otherwise specified, @command{date} normally pads numeric fields
13414 with zeros, so that, for
13415 example, numeric months are always output as two digits.
13416 Seconds since the epoch are not padded, though,
13417 since there is no natural width for them.
13419 As a @acronym{GNU} extension, @command{date} recognizes any of the
13420 following optional flags after the @samp{%}:
13424 (hyphen) Do not pad the field; useful if the output is intended for
13427 (underscore) Pad with spaces; useful if you need a fixed
13428 number of characters in the output, but zeros are too distracting.
13430 (zero) Pad with zeros even if the conversion specifier
13431 would normally pad with spaces.
13433 Use upper case characters if possible.
13435 Use opposite case characters if possible.
13436 A field that is normally upper case becomes lower case, and vice versa.
13440 Here are some examples of padding:
13443 date +%d/%m -d "Feb 1"
13445 date +%-d/%-m -d "Feb 1"
13447 date +%_d/%_m -d "Feb 1"
13451 As a @acronym{GNU} extension, you can specify the field width
13452 (after any flag, if present) as a decimal number. If the natural size of the
13453 output of the field has less than the specified number of characters,
13454 the result is written right adjusted and padded to the given
13455 size. For example, @samp{%9B} prints the right adjusted month name in
13456 a field of width 9.
13458 An optional modifier can follow the optional flag and width
13459 specification. The modifiers are:
13463 Use the locale's alternate representation for date and time. This
13464 modifier applies to the @samp{%c}, @samp{%C}, @samp{%x}, @samp{%X},
13465 @samp{%y} and @samp{%Y} conversion specifiers. In a Japanese locale, for
13466 example, @samp{%Ex} might yield a date format based on the Japanese
13470 Use the locale's alternate numeric symbols for numbers. This modifier
13471 applies only to numeric conversion specifiers.
13474 If the format supports the modifier but no alternate representation
13475 is available, it is ignored.
13478 @node Setting the time
13479 @subsection Setting the time
13481 @cindex setting the time
13482 @cindex time setting
13483 @cindex appropriate privileges
13485 If given an argument that does not start with @samp{+}, @command{date} sets
13486 the system clock to the date and time specified by that argument (as
13487 described below). You must have appropriate privileges to set the
13488 system clock. The @option{--date} and @option{--set} options may not be
13489 used with such an argument. The @option{--universal} option may be used
13490 with such an argument to indicate that the specified date and time are
13491 relative to Coordinated Universal Time rather than to the local time
13494 The argument must consist entirely of digits, which have the following
13507 first two digits of year (optional)
13509 last two digits of year (optional)
13514 The @option{--set} option also sets the system clock; see the next section.
13517 @node Options for date
13518 @subsection Options for @command{date}
13520 @cindex @command{date} options
13521 @cindex options for @command{date}
13523 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
13527 @item -d @var{datestr}
13528 @itemx --date=@var{datestr}
13531 @cindex parsing date strings
13532 @cindex date strings, parsing
13533 @cindex arbitrary date strings, parsing
13536 @opindex next @var{day}
13537 @opindex last @var{day}
13538 Display the date and time specified in @var{datestr} instead of the
13539 current date and time. @var{datestr} can be in almost any common
13540 format. It can contain month names, time zones, @samp{am} and @samp{pm},
13541 @samp{yesterday}, etc. For example, @option{--date="2004-02-27
13542 14:19:13.489392193 +0530"} specifies the instant of time that is
13543 489,392,193 nanoseconds after February 27, 2004 at 2:19:13 PM in a
13544 time zone that is 5 hours and 30 minutes east of @acronym{UTC}.@*
13545 Note: input currently must be in locale independent format. E.g., the
13546 LC_TIME=C below is needed to print back the correct date in many locales:
13548 date -d "$(LC_TIME=C date)"
13550 @xref{Date input formats}.
13552 @item -f @var{datefile}
13553 @itemx --file=@var{datefile}
13556 Parse each line in @var{datefile} as with @option{-d} and display the
13557 resulting date and time. If @var{datefile} is @samp{-}, use standard
13558 input. This is useful when you have many dates to process, because the
13559 system overhead of starting up the @command{date} executable many times can
13562 @item -r @var{file}
13563 @itemx --reference=@var{file}
13565 @opindex --reference
13566 Display the date and time of the last modification of @var{file},
13567 instead of the current date and time.
13574 @opindex --rfc-2822
13575 Display the date and time using the format @samp{%a, %d %b %Y %H:%M:%S
13576 %z}, evaluated in the C locale so abbreviations are always in English.
13580 Fri, 09 Sep 2005 13:51:39 -0700
13583 This format conforms to
13584 @uref{ftp://ftp.rfc-editor.org/in-notes/rfc2822.txt, Internet
13585 @acronym{RFCs} 2822} and
13586 @uref{ftp://ftp.rfc-editor.org/in-notes/rfc822.txt, 822}, the
13587 current and previous standards for Internet email.
13589 @item --rfc-3339=@var{timespec}
13590 @opindex --rfc-3339=@var{timespec}
13591 Display the date using a format specified by
13592 @uref{ftp://ftp.rfc-editor.org/in-notes/rfc3339.txt, Internet
13593 @acronym{RFC} 3339}. This is a subset of the @acronym{ISO} 8601
13594 format, except that it also permits applications to use a space rather
13595 than a @samp{T} to separate dates from times. Unlike the other
13596 standard formats, @acronym{RFC} 3339 format is always suitable as
13597 input for the @option{--date} (@option{-d}) and @option{--file}
13598 (@option{-f}) options, regardless of the current locale.
13600 The argument @var{timespec} specifies how much of the time to include.
13601 It can be one of the following:
13605 Print just the full-date, e.g., @samp{2005-09-14}.
13606 This is equivalent to the format @samp{%Y-%m-%d}.
13609 Print the full-date and full-time separated by a space, e.g.,
13610 @samp{2005-09-14 00:56:06+05:30}. The output ends with a numeric
13611 time-offset; here the @samp{+05:30} means that local time is five
13612 hours and thirty minutes east of @acronym{UTC}. This is equivalent to
13613 the format @samp{%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S%:z}.
13616 Like @samp{seconds}, but also print nanoseconds, e.g.,
13617 @samp{2005-09-14 00:56:06.998458565+05:30}.
13618 This is equivalent to the format @samp{%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S.%N%:z}.
13622 @item -s @var{datestr}
13623 @itemx --set=@var{datestr}
13626 Set the date and time to @var{datestr}. See @option{-d} above.
13633 @opindex --universal
13634 @cindex Coordinated Universal Time
13636 @cindex Greenwich Mean Time
13639 Use Coordinated Universal Time (@acronym{UTC}) by operating as if the
13640 @env{TZ} environment variable were set to the string @samp{UTC0}.
13642 Universal Time is often called ``Greenwich Mean Time'' (@sc{gmt}) for
13643 historical reasons.
13647 @node Examples of date
13648 @subsection Examples of @command{date}
13650 @cindex examples of @command{date}
13652 Here are a few examples. Also see the documentation for the @option{-d}
13653 option in the previous section.
13658 To print the date of the day before yesterday:
13661 date --date='2 days ago'
13665 To print the date of the day three months and one day hence:
13668 date --date='3 months 1 day'
13672 To print the day of year of Christmas in the current year:
13675 date --date='25 Dec' +%j
13679 To print the current full month name and the day of the month:
13685 But this may not be what you want because for the first nine days of
13686 the month, the @samp{%d} expands to a zero-padded two-digit field,
13687 for example @samp{date -d 1may '+%B %d'} will print @samp{May 01}.
13690 To print a date without the leading zero for one-digit days
13691 of the month, you can use the (@acronym{GNU} extension)
13692 @samp{-} flag to suppress
13693 the padding altogether:
13696 date -d 1may '+%B %-d
13700 To print the current date and time in the format required by many
13701 non-@acronym{GNU} versions of @command{date} when setting the system clock:
13704 date +%m%d%H%M%Y.%S
13708 To set the system clock forward by two minutes:
13711 date --set='+2 minutes'
13715 To print the date in @acronym{RFC} 2822 format,
13716 use @samp{date --rfc-2822}. Here is some example output:
13719 Fri, 09 Sep 2005 13:51:39 -0700
13722 @anchor{%s-examples}
13724 To convert a date string to the number of seconds since the epoch
13725 (which is 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC), use the @option{--date} option with
13726 the @samp{%s} format. That can be useful in sorting and/or graphing
13727 and/or comparing data by date. The following command outputs the
13728 number of the seconds since the epoch for the time two minutes after the
13732 date --date='1970-01-01 00:02:00 +0000' +%s
13736 If you do not specify time zone information in the date string,
13737 @command{date} uses your computer's idea of the time zone when
13738 interpreting the string. For example, if your computer's time zone is
13739 that of Cambridge, Massachusetts, which was then 5 hours (i.e., 18,000
13740 seconds) behind UTC:
13743 # local time zone used
13744 date --date='1970-01-01 00:02:00' +%s
13749 If you're sorting or graphing dated data, your raw date values may be
13750 represented as seconds since the epoch. But few people can look at
13751 the date @samp{946684800} and casually note ``Oh, that's the first second
13752 of the year 2000 in Greenwich, England.''
13755 date --date='2000-01-01 UTC' +%s
13759 An alternative is to use the @option{--utc} (@option{-u}) option.
13760 Then you may omit @samp{UTC} from the date string. Although this
13761 produces the same result for @samp{%s} and many other format sequences,
13762 with a time zone offset different from zero, it would give a different
13763 result for zone-dependent formats like @samp{%z}.
13766 date -u --date=2000-01-01 +%s
13770 To convert such an unwieldy number of seconds back to
13771 a more readable form, use a command like this:
13774 # local time zone used
13775 date -d '1970-01-01 UTC 946684800 seconds' +"%Y-%m-%d %T %z"
13776 1999-12-31 19:00:00 -0500
13779 Or if you do not mind depending on the @samp{@@} feature present since
13780 coreutils 5.3.0, you could shorten this to:
13783 date -d @@946684800 +"%F %T %z"
13784 1999-12-31 19:00:00 -0500
13787 Often it is better to output UTC-relative date and time:
13790 date -u -d '1970-01-01 946684800 seconds' +"%Y-%m-%d %T %z"
13791 2000-01-01 00:00:00 +0000
13797 @node arch invocation
13798 @section @command{arch}: Print machine hardware name
13801 @cindex print machine hardware name
13802 @cindex system information, printing
13804 @command{arch} prints the machine hardware name,
13805 and is equivalent to @samp{uname -m}.
13809 arch [@var{option}]
13812 The program accepts the @ref{Common options} only.
13817 @node uname invocation
13818 @section @command{uname}: Print system information
13821 @cindex print system information
13822 @cindex system information, printing
13824 @command{uname} prints information about the machine and operating system
13825 it is run on. If no options are given, @command{uname} acts as if the
13826 @option{-s} option were given. Synopsis:
13829 uname [@var{option}]@dots{}
13832 If multiple options or @option{-a} are given, the selected information is
13833 printed in this order:
13836 @var{kernel-name} @var{nodename} @var{kernel-release} @var{kernel-version}
13837 @var{machine} @var{processor} @var{hardware-platform} @var{operating-system}
13840 The information may contain internal spaces, so such output cannot be
13841 parsed reliably. In the following example, @var{release} is
13842 @samp{2.2.18ss.e820-bda652a #4 SMP Tue Jun 5 11:24:08 PDT 2001}:
13846 @result{} Linux dum 2.2.18 #4 SMP Tue Jun 5 11:24:08 PDT 2001 i686 unknown unknown GNU/Linux
13850 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
13858 Print all of the below information, except omit the processor type
13859 and the hardware platform name if they are unknown.
13862 @itemx --hardware-platform
13864 @opindex --hardware-platform
13865 @cindex implementation, hardware
13866 @cindex hardware platform
13867 @cindex platform, hardware
13868 Print the hardware platform name
13869 (sometimes called the hardware implementation).
13870 Print @samp{unknown} if the kernel does not make this information
13871 easily available, as is the case with Linux kernels.
13877 @cindex machine type
13878 @cindex hardware class
13879 @cindex hardware type
13880 Print the machine hardware name (sometimes called the hardware class
13886 @opindex --nodename
13889 @cindex network node name
13890 Print the network node hostname.
13895 @opindex --processor
13896 @cindex host processor type
13897 Print the processor type (sometimes called the instruction set
13898 architecture or ISA).
13899 Print @samp{unknown} if the kernel does not make this information
13900 easily available, as is the case with Linux kernels.
13903 @itemx --operating-system
13905 @opindex --operating-system
13906 @cindex operating system name
13907 Print the name of the operating system.
13910 @itemx --kernel-release
13912 @opindex --kernel-release
13913 @cindex kernel release
13914 @cindex release of kernel
13915 Print the kernel release.
13918 @itemx --kernel-name
13920 @opindex --kernel-name
13921 @cindex kernel name
13922 @cindex name of kernel
13923 Print the kernel name.
13924 @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards conformance}) calls this
13925 ``the implementation of the operating system'', because the
13926 @acronym{POSIX} specification itself has no notion of ``kernel''.
13927 The kernel name might be the same as the operating system name printed
13928 by the @option{-o} or @option{--operating-system} option, but it might
13929 differ. Some operating systems (e.g., FreeBSD, HP-UX) have the same
13930 name as their underlying kernels; others (e.g., GNU/Linux, Solaris)
13934 @itemx --kernel-version
13936 @opindex --kernel-version
13937 @cindex kernel version
13938 @cindex version of kernel
13939 Print the kernel version.
13946 @node hostname invocation
13947 @section @command{hostname}: Print or set system name
13950 @cindex setting the hostname
13951 @cindex printing the hostname
13952 @cindex system name, printing
13953 @cindex appropriate privileges
13955 With no arguments, @command{hostname} prints the name of the current host
13956 system. With one argument, it sets the current host name to the
13957 specified string. You must have appropriate privileges to set the host
13961 hostname [@var{name}]
13964 The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}. @xref{Common
13970 @node hostid invocation
13971 @section @command{hostid}: Print numeric host identifier
13974 @cindex printing the host identifier
13976 @command{hostid} prints the numeric identifier of the current host
13977 in hexadecimal. This command accepts no arguments.
13978 The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.
13979 @xref{Common options}.
13981 For example, here's what it prints on one system I use:
13988 On that system, the 32-bit quantity happens to be closely
13989 related to the system's Internet address, but that isn't always
13994 @node uptime invocation
13995 @section @command{uptime}: Print system uptime and load
13998 @cindex printing the system uptime and load
14000 @command{uptime} prints the current time, the system's uptime, the
14001 number of logged-in users and the current load average.
14003 If an argument is specified, it is used as the file to be read
14004 to discover how many users are logged in. If no argument is
14005 specified, a system default is used (@command{uptime --help} indicates
14006 the default setting).
14008 The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.
14009 @xref{Common options}.
14011 For example, here's what it prints right now on one system I use:
14015 14:07 up 3:35, 3 users, load average: 1.39, 1.15, 1.04
14018 The precise method of calculation of load average varies somewhat
14019 between systems. Some systems calculate it as the average number of
14020 runnable processes over the last 1, 5 and 15 minutes, but some systems
14021 also include processes in the uninterruptible sleep state (that is,
14022 those processes which are waiting for disk I/O). The Linux kernel
14023 includes uninterruptible processes.
14025 @node SELinux context
14026 @chapter SELinux context
14028 @cindex SELinux context
14029 @cindex SELinux, context
14030 @cindex commands for SELinux context
14032 This section describes commands for operations with SELinux
14036 * chcon invocation:: Change SELinux context of file
14037 * runcon invocation:: Run a command in specified SELinux context
14040 @node chcon invocation
14041 @section @command{chcon}: Change SELinux context of file
14044 @cindex changing security context
14045 @cindex change SELinux context
14047 @command{chcon} changes the SELinux security context of the selected files.
14051 chcon [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{context} @var{file}@dots{}
14052 chcon [@var{option}]@dots{} [-u @var{user}] [-r @var{role}] [-l @var{range}] [-t @var{type}] @var{file}@dots{}
14053 chcon [@var{option}]@dots{} --reference=@var{rfile} @var{file}@dots{}
14056 Change the SELinux security context of each @var{file} to @var{context}.
14057 With @option{--reference}, change the security context of each @var{file}
14058 to that of @var{rfile}.
14060 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
14065 @itemx --no-dereference
14067 @opindex --no-dereference
14068 @cindex no dereference
14069 Affect symbolic links instead of any referenced file.
14071 @item --reference=@var{rfile}
14072 @opindex --reference
14073 @cindex reference file
14074 Use @var{rfile}'s security context rather than specifying a @var{context} value.
14079 @opindex --recursive
14080 Operate on files and directories recursively.
14083 @xref{Traversing symlinks}.
14086 @xref{Traversing symlinks}.
14089 @xref{Traversing symlinks}.
14096 Output a diagnostic for every file processed.
14098 @item -u @var{user}
14099 @itemx --user=@var{user}
14102 Set user @var{user} in the target security context.
14104 @item -r @var{role}
14105 @itemx --role=@var{role}
14108 Set role @var{role} in the target security context.
14110 @item -t @var{type}
14111 @itemx --type=@var{type}
14114 Set type @var{type} in the target security context.
14116 @item -l @var{range}
14117 @itemx --range=@var{range}
14120 Set range @var{range} in the target security context.
14126 @node runcon invocation
14127 @section @command{runcon}: Run a command in specified SELinux context
14130 @cindex run with security context
14133 @command{runcon} runs file in specified SELinux security context.
14137 runcon @var{context} @var{command} [@var{args}]
14138 runcon [ -c ] [-u @var{user}] [-r @var{role}] [-t @var{type}] [-l @var{range}] @var{command} [@var{args}]
14141 Run @var{command} with completely-specified @var{context}, or with
14142 current or transitioned security context modified by one or more of @var{level},
14143 @var{role}, @var{type} and @var{user}.
14145 If none of @option{-c}, @option{-t}, @option{-u}, @option{-r}, or @option{-l}
14146 is specified, the first argument is used as the complete context.
14147 Any additional arguments after @var{command}
14148 are interpreted as arguments to the command.
14150 With neither @var{context} nor @var{command}, print the current security context.
14152 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
14160 Compute process transition context before modifying.
14162 @item -u @var{user}
14163 @itemx --user=@var{user}
14166 Set user @var{user} in the target security context.
14168 @item -r @var{role}
14169 @itemx --role=@var{role}
14172 Set role @var{role} in the target security context.
14174 @item -t @var{type}
14175 @itemx --type=@var{type}
14178 Set type @var{type} in the target security context.
14180 @item -l @var{range}
14181 @itemx --range=@var{range}
14184 Set range @var{range} in the target security context.
14188 @cindex exit status of @command{runcon}
14192 126 if @var{command} is found but cannot be invoked
14193 127 if @command{runcon} itself fails or if @var{command} cannot be found
14194 the exit status of @var{command} otherwise
14197 @node Modified command invocation
14198 @chapter Modified command invocation
14200 @cindex modified command invocation
14201 @cindex invocation of commands, modified
14202 @cindex commands for invoking other commands
14204 This section describes commands that run other commands in some context
14205 different than the current one: a modified environment, as a different
14209 * chroot invocation:: Modify the root directory.
14210 * env invocation:: Modify environment variables.
14211 * nice invocation:: Modify niceness.
14212 * nohup invocation:: Immunize to hangups.
14213 * stdbuf invocation:: Modify buffering of standard streams.
14214 * su invocation:: Modify user and group ID.
14215 * timeout invocation:: Run with time limit.
14219 @node chroot invocation
14220 @section @command{chroot}: Run a command with a different root directory
14223 @cindex running a program in a specified root directory
14224 @cindex root directory, running a program in a specified
14226 @command{chroot} runs a command with a specified root directory.
14227 On many systems, only the super-user can do this.@footnote{However,
14228 some systems (e.g., FreeBSD) can be configured to allow certain regular
14229 users to use the @code{chroot} system call, and hence to run this program.
14230 Also, on Cygwin, anyone can run the @command{chroot} command, because the
14231 underlying function is non-privileged due to lack of support in MS-Windows.}
14235 chroot @var{option} @var{newroot} [@var{command} [@var{args}]@dots{}]
14236 chroot @var{option}
14239 Ordinarily, file names are looked up starting at the root of the
14240 directory structure, i.e., @file{/}. @command{chroot} changes the root to
14241 the directory @var{newroot} (which must exist) and then runs
14242 @var{command} with optional @var{args}. If @var{command} is not
14243 specified, the default is the value of the @env{SHELL} environment
14244 variable or @command{/bin/sh} if not set, invoked with the @option{-i} option.
14245 @var{command} must not be a special built-in utility
14246 (@pxref{Special built-in utilities}).
14248 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
14249 Options must precede operands.
14253 @itemx --userspec=@var{user}[:@var{group}]
14254 @opindex --userspec
14255 By default, @var{command} is run with the same credentials
14256 as the invoking process.
14257 Use this option to run it as a different @var{user} and/or with a
14258 different primary @var{group}.
14260 @itemx --groups=@var{groups}
14262 Use this option to specify the supplementary @var{groups} to be
14263 used by the new process.
14264 The items in the list (names or numeric IDs) must be separated by commas.
14268 Here are a few tips to help avoid common problems in using chroot.
14269 To start with a simple example, make @var{command} refer to a statically
14270 linked binary. If you were to use a dynamically linked executable, then
14271 you'd have to arrange to have the shared libraries in the right place under
14272 your new root directory.
14274 For example, if you create a statically linked @command{ls} executable,
14275 and put it in @file{/tmp/empty}, you can run this command as root:
14278 $ chroot /tmp/empty /ls -Rl /
14281 Then you'll see output like this:
14286 -rwxr-xr-x 1 0 0 1041745 Aug 16 11:17 ls
14289 If you want to use a dynamically linked executable, say @command{bash},
14290 then first run @samp{ldd bash} to see what shared objects it needs.
14291 Then, in addition to copying the actual binary, also copy the listed
14292 files to the required positions under your intended new root directory.
14293 Finally, if the executable requires any other files (e.g., data, state,
14294 device files), copy them into place, too.
14296 @cindex exit status of @command{chroot}
14300 1 if @command{chroot} itself fails
14301 126 if @var{command} is found but cannot be invoked
14302 127 if @var{command} cannot be found
14303 the exit status of @var{command} otherwise
14307 @node env invocation
14308 @section @command{env}: Run a command in a modified environment
14311 @cindex environment, running a program in a modified
14312 @cindex modified environment, running a program in a
14313 @cindex running a program in a modified environment
14315 @command{env} runs a command with a modified environment. Synopses:
14318 env [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{name}=@var{value}]@dots{} @c
14319 [@var{command} [@var{args}]@dots{}]
14323 Operands of the form @samp{@var{variable}=@var{value}} set
14324 the environment variable @var{variable} to value @var{value}.
14325 @var{value} may be empty (@samp{@var{variable}=}). Setting a variable
14326 to an empty value is different from unsetting it.
14327 These operands are evaluated left-to-right, so if two operands
14328 mention the same variable the earlier is ignored.
14330 Environment variable names can be empty, and can contain any
14331 characters other than @samp{=} and @acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul}.
14332 However, it is wise to limit yourself to names that
14333 consist solely of underscores, digits, and @acronym{ASCII} letters,
14334 and that begin with a non-digit, as applications like the shell do not
14335 work well with other names.
14338 The first operand that does not contain the character @samp{=}
14339 specifies the program to invoke; it is
14340 searched for according to the @env{PATH} environment variable. Any
14341 remaining arguments are passed as arguments to that program.
14342 The program should not be a special built-in utility
14343 (@pxref{Special built-in utilities}).
14345 @cindex environment, printing
14347 If no command name is specified following the environment
14348 specifications, the resulting environment is printed. This is like
14349 specifying the @command{printenv} program.
14351 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
14352 Options must precede operands.
14356 @item -u @var{name}
14357 @itemx --unset=@var{name}
14360 Remove variable @var{name} from the environment, if it was in the
14365 @itemx --ignore-environment
14368 @opindex --ignore-environment
14369 Start with an empty environment, ignoring the inherited environment.
14373 @cindex exit status of @command{env}
14377 0 if no @var{command} is specified and the environment is output
14378 1 if @command{env} itself fails
14379 126 if @var{command} is found but cannot be invoked
14380 127 if @var{command} cannot be found
14381 the exit status of @var{command} otherwise
14385 @node nice invocation
14386 @section @command{nice}: Run a command with modified niceness
14390 @cindex scheduling, affecting
14391 @cindex appropriate privileges
14393 @command{nice} prints or modifies a process's @dfn{niceness},
14394 a parameter that affects whether the process is scheduled favorably.
14398 nice [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{command} [@var{arg}]@dots{}]
14401 If no arguments are given, @command{nice} prints the current niceness.
14402 Otherwise, @command{nice} runs the given @var{command} with its
14403 niceness adjusted. By default, its niceness is incremented by 10.
14405 Niceness values range at least from @minus{}20 (process has high priority
14406 and gets more resources, thus slowing down other processes) through 19
14407 (process has lower priority and runs slowly itself, but has less impact
14408 on the speed of other running processes). Some systems
14409 may have a wider range of nicenesses; conversely, other systems may
14410 enforce more restrictive limits. An attempt to set the niceness
14411 outside the supported range is treated as an attempt to use the
14412 minimum or maximum supported value.
14414 A niceness should not be confused with a scheduling priority, which
14415 lets applications determine the order in which threads are scheduled
14416 to run. Unlike a priority, a niceness is merely advice to the
14417 scheduler, which the scheduler is free to ignore. Also, as a point of
14418 terminology, @acronym{POSIX} defines the behavior of @command{nice} in
14419 terms of a @dfn{nice value}, which is the nonnegative difference
14420 between a niceness and the minimum niceness. Though @command{nice}
14421 conforms to @acronym{POSIX}, its documentation and diagnostics use the
14422 term ``niceness'' for compatibility with historical practice.
14424 @var{command} must not be a special built-in utility (@pxref{Special
14425 built-in utilities}).
14427 @mayConflictWithShellBuiltIn{nice}
14429 The program accepts the following option. Also see @ref{Common options}.
14430 Options must precede operands.
14433 @item -n @var{adjustment}
14434 @itemx --adjustment=@var{adjustment}
14436 @opindex --adjustment
14437 Add @var{adjustment} instead of 10 to the command's niceness. If
14438 @var{adjustment} is negative and you lack appropriate privileges,
14439 @command{nice} issues a warning but otherwise acts as if you specified
14442 For compatibility @command{nice} also supports an obsolete
14443 option syntax @option{-@var{adjustment}}. New scripts should use
14444 @option{-n @var{adjustment}} instead.
14448 @cindex exit status of @command{nice}
14452 0 if no @var{command} is specified and the niceness is output
14453 1 if @command{nice} itself fails
14454 126 if @var{command} is found but cannot be invoked
14455 127 if @var{command} cannot be found
14456 the exit status of @var{command} otherwise
14459 It is sometimes useful to run a non-interactive program with reduced niceness.
14462 $ nice factor 4611686018427387903
14465 Since @command{nice} prints the current niceness,
14466 you can invoke it through itself to demonstrate how it works.
14468 The default behavior is to increase the niceness by @samp{10}:
14479 The @var{adjustment} is relative to the current niceness. In the
14480 next example, the first @command{nice} invocation runs the second one
14481 with niceness 10, and it in turn runs the final one with a niceness
14485 $ nice nice -n 3 nice
14489 Specifying a niceness larger than the supported range
14490 is the same as specifying the maximum supported value:
14493 $ nice -n 10000000000 nice
14497 Only a privileged user may run a process with lower niceness:
14501 nice: cannot set niceness: Permission denied
14503 $ sudo nice -n -1 nice
14508 @node nohup invocation
14509 @section @command{nohup}: Run a command immune to hangups
14512 @cindex hangups, immunity to
14513 @cindex immunity to hangups
14514 @cindex logging out and continuing to run
14517 @command{nohup} runs the given @var{command} with hangup signals ignored,
14518 so that the command can continue running in the background after you log
14522 nohup @var{command} [@var{arg}]@dots{}
14525 If standard input is a terminal, it is redirected from
14526 @file{/dev/null} so that terminal sessions do not mistakenly consider
14527 the terminal to be used by the command. This is a @acronym{GNU}
14528 extension; programs intended to be portable to non-@acronym{GNU} hosts
14529 should use @samp{nohup @var{command} [@var{arg}]@dots{} </dev/null}
14533 If standard output is a terminal, the command's standard output is appended
14534 to the file @file{nohup.out}; if that cannot be written to, it is appended
14535 to the file @file{$HOME/nohup.out}; and if that cannot be written to, the
14536 command is not run.
14537 Any @file{nohup.out} or @file{$HOME/nohup.out} file created by
14538 @command{nohup} is made readable and writable only to the user,
14539 regardless of the current umask settings.
14541 If standard error is a terminal, it is normally redirected to the same file
14542 descriptor as the (possibly-redirected) standard output.
14543 However, if standard output is closed, standard error terminal output
14544 is instead appended to the file @file{nohup.out} or
14545 @file{$HOME/nohup.out} as above.
14547 To capture the command's output to a file other than @file{nohup.out}
14548 you can redirect it. For example, to capture the output of
14552 nohup make > make.log
14555 @command{nohup} does not automatically put the command it runs in the
14556 background; you must do that explicitly, by ending the command line
14557 with an @samp{&}. Also, @command{nohup} does not alter the
14558 niceness of @var{command}; use @command{nice} for that,
14559 e.g., @samp{nohup nice @var{command}}.
14561 @var{command} must not be a special built-in utility (@pxref{Special
14562 built-in utilities}).
14564 The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}. @xref{Common
14565 options}. Options must precede operands.
14567 @cindex exit status of @command{nohup}
14571 126 if @var{command} is found but cannot be invoked
14572 127 if @command{nohup} itself fails or if @var{command} cannot be found
14573 the exit status of @var{command} otherwise
14577 @node stdbuf invocation
14578 @section @command{stdbuf}: Run a command with modified I/O stream buffering
14581 @cindex standard streams, buffering
14582 @cindex line buffered
14584 @command{stdbuf} allows one to modify the buffering operations of the
14585 three standard I/O streams associated with a program. Synopsis:
14588 stdbuf @var{option}@dots{} @var{command}
14591 Any additional @var{arg}s are passed as additional arguments to the
14594 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
14598 @item -i @var{mode}
14599 @itemx --input=@var{mode}
14602 Adjust the standard input stream buffering.
14604 @item -o @var{mode}
14605 @itemx --output=@var{mode}
14608 Adjust the standard output stream buffering.
14610 @item -e @var{mode}
14611 @itemx --error=@var{mode}
14614 Adjust the standard error stream buffering.
14618 The @var{mode} can be specified as follows:
14623 Set the stream to line buffered mode.
14624 In this mode data is coalesced until a newline is output or
14625 input is read from any stream attached to a terminal device.
14626 This option is invalid with standard input.
14629 Disable buffering of the selected stream.
14630 In this mode data is output immediately and only the
14631 amount of data requested is read from input.
14634 Specify the size of the buffer to use in fully buffered mode.
14635 @multiplierSuffixesNoBlocks{size}
14639 NOTE: If @var{command} adjusts the buffering of its standard streams
14640 (@command{tee} does for e.g.) then that will override corresponding settings
14641 changed by @command{stdbuf}. Also some filters (like @command{dd} and
14642 @command{cat} etc.) don't use streams for I/O, and are thus unaffected
14643 by @command{stdbuf} settings.
14645 @cindex exit status of @command{stdbuf}
14649 125 if @command{stdbuf} itself fails
14650 126 if @var{command} is found but cannot be invoked
14651 127 if @var{command} cannot be found
14652 the exit status of @var{command} otherwise
14656 @node su invocation
14657 @section @command{su}: Run a command with substitute user and group ID
14660 @cindex substitute user and group IDs
14661 @cindex user ID, switching
14662 @cindex super-user, becoming
14663 @cindex root, becoming
14665 @command{su} allows one user to temporarily become another user. It runs a
14666 command (often an interactive shell) with the real and effective user
14667 ID, group ID, and supplemental groups of a given @var{user}. Synopsis:
14670 su [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{user} [@var{arg}]@dots{}]
14673 @cindex passwd entry, and @command{su} shell
14675 @flindex /etc/passwd
14676 If no @var{user} is given, the default is @code{root}, the super-user.
14677 The shell to use is taken from @var{user}'s @code{passwd} entry, or
14678 @file{/bin/sh} if none is specified there. If @var{user} has a
14679 password, @command{su} prompts for the password unless run by a user with
14680 effective user ID of zero (the super-user).
14686 @cindex login shell
14687 By default, @command{su} does not change the current directory.
14688 It sets the environment variables @env{HOME} and @env{SHELL}
14689 from the password entry for @var{user}, and if @var{user} is not
14690 the super-user, sets @env{USER} and @env{LOGNAME} to @var{user}.
14691 By default, the shell is not a login shell.
14693 Any additional @var{arg}s are passed as additional arguments to the
14696 @cindex @option{-su}
14697 GNU @command{su} does not treat @file{/bin/sh} or any other shells specially
14698 (e.g., by setting @code{argv[0]} to @option{-su}, passing @option{-c} only
14699 to certain shells, etc.).
14702 @command{su} can optionally be compiled to use @code{syslog} to report
14703 failed, and optionally successful, @command{su} attempts. (If the system
14704 supports @code{syslog}.) However, GNU @command{su} does not check if the
14705 user is a member of the @code{wheel} group; see below.
14707 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
14710 @item -c @var{command}
14711 @itemx --command=@var{command}
14714 Pass @var{command}, a single command line to run, to the shell with
14715 a @option{-c} option instead of starting an interactive shell.
14722 @cindex file name pattern expansion, disabled
14723 @cindex globbing, disabled
14724 Pass the @option{-f} option to the shell. This probably only makes sense
14725 if the shell run is @command{csh} or @command{tcsh}, for which the @option{-f}
14726 option prevents reading the startup file (@file{.cshrc}). With
14727 Bourne-like shells, the @option{-f} option disables file name pattern
14728 expansion (globbing), which is not likely to be useful.
14736 @c other variables already indexed above
14739 @cindex login shell, creating
14740 Make the shell a login shell. This means the following. Unset all
14741 environment variables except @env{TERM}, @env{HOME}, and @env{SHELL}
14742 (which are set as described above), and @env{USER} and @env{LOGNAME}
14743 (which are set, even for the super-user, as described above), and set
14744 @env{PATH} to a compiled-in default value. Change to @var{user}'s home
14745 directory. Prepend @samp{-} to the shell's name, intended to make it
14746 read its login startup file(s).
14750 @itemx --preserve-environment
14753 @opindex --preserve-environment
14754 @cindex environment, preserving
14755 @flindex /etc/shells
14756 @cindex restricted shell
14757 Do not change the environment variables @env{HOME}, @env{USER},
14758 @env{LOGNAME}, or @env{SHELL}. Run the shell given in the environment
14759 variable @env{SHELL} instead of the shell from @var{user}'s passwd
14760 entry, unless the user running @command{su} is not the super-user and
14761 @var{user}'s shell is restricted. A @dfn{restricted shell} is one that
14762 is not listed in the file @file{/etc/shells}, or in a compiled-in list
14763 if that file does not exist. Parts of what this option does can be
14764 overridden by @option{--login} and @option{--shell}.
14766 @item -s @var{shell}
14767 @itemx --shell=@var{shell}
14770 Run @var{shell} instead of the shell from @var{user}'s passwd entry,
14771 unless the user running @command{su} is not the super-user and @var{user}'s
14772 shell is restricted (see @option{-m} just above).
14776 @cindex exit status of @command{su}
14780 1 if @command{su} itself fails
14781 126 if subshell is found but cannot be invoked
14782 127 if subshell cannot be found
14783 the exit status of the subshell otherwise
14786 @cindex wheel group, not supported
14787 @cindex group wheel, not supported
14789 @subsection Why GNU @command{su} does not support the @samp{wheel} group
14791 (This section is by Richard Stallman.)
14795 Sometimes a few of the users try to hold total power over all the
14796 rest. For example, in 1984, a few users at the MIT AI lab decided to
14797 seize power by changing the operator password on the Twenex system and
14798 keeping it secret from everyone else. (I was able to thwart this coup
14799 and give power back to the users by patching the kernel, but I
14800 wouldn't know how to do that in Unix.)
14802 However, occasionally the rulers do tell someone. Under the usual
14803 @command{su} mechanism, once someone learns the root password who
14804 sympathizes with the ordinary users, he or she can tell the rest. The
14805 ``wheel group'' feature would make this impossible, and thus cement the
14806 power of the rulers.
14808 I'm on the side of the masses, not that of the rulers. If you are
14809 used to supporting the bosses and sysadmins in whatever they do, you
14810 might find this idea strange at first.
14813 @node timeout invocation
14814 @section @command{timeout}: Run a command with a time limit
14818 @cindex run commands with bounded time
14820 @command{timeout} runs the given @var{command} and kills it if it is
14821 still running after the specified time interval. Synopsis:
14824 timeout [@var{option}] @var{number}[smhd] @var{command} [@var{arg}]@dots{}
14828 @var{number} is an integer followed by an optional unit; the default
14829 is seconds. The units are:
14842 @var{command} must not be a special built-in utility (@pxref{Special
14843 built-in utilities}).
14845 The program accepts the following option. Also see @ref{Common options}.
14846 Options must precede operands.
14849 @item -s @var{signal}
14850 @itemx --signal=@var{signal}
14853 Send this @var{signal} to @var{command} on timeout, rather than the
14854 default @samp{TERM} signal. @var{signal} may be a name like @samp{HUP}
14855 or a number. Also see @xref{Signal specifications}.
14859 @cindex exit status of @command{timeout}
14863 124 if @var{command} times out
14864 125 if @command{timeout} itself fails
14865 126 if @var{command} is found but cannot be invoked
14866 127 if @var{command} cannot be found
14867 the exit status of @var{command} otherwise
14871 @node Process control
14872 @chapter Process control
14874 @cindex processes, commands for controlling
14875 @cindex commands for controlling processes
14878 * kill invocation:: Sending a signal to processes.
14882 @node kill invocation
14883 @section @command{kill}: Send a signal to processes
14886 @cindex send a signal to processes
14888 The @command{kill} command sends a signal to processes, causing them
14889 to terminate or otherwise act upon receiving the signal in some way.
14890 Alternatively, it lists information about signals. Synopses:
14893 kill [-s @var{signal} | --signal @var{signal} | -@var{signal}] @var{pid}@dots{}
14894 kill [-l | --list | -t | --table] [@var{signal}]@dots{}
14897 @mayConflictWithShellBuiltIn{kill}
14899 The first form of the @command{kill} command sends a signal to all
14900 @var{pid} arguments. The default signal to send if none is specified
14901 is @samp{TERM}. The special signal number @samp{0} does not denote a
14902 valid signal, but can be used to test whether the @var{pid} arguments
14903 specify processes to which a signal could be sent.
14905 If @var{pid} is positive, the signal is sent to the process with the
14906 process ID @var{pid}. If @var{pid} is zero, the signal is sent to all
14907 processes in the process group of the current process. If @var{pid}
14908 is @minus{}1, the signal is sent to all processes for which the user has
14909 permission to send a signal. If @var{pid} is less than @minus{}1, the signal
14910 is sent to all processes in the process group that equals the absolute
14911 value of @var{pid}.
14913 If @var{pid} is not positive, a system-dependent set of system
14914 processes is excluded from the list of processes to which the signal
14917 If a negative @var{pid} argument is desired as the first one, it
14918 should be preceded by @option{--}. However, as a common extension to
14919 @acronym{POSIX}, @option{--} is not required with @samp{kill
14920 -@var{signal} -@var{pid}}. The following commands are equivalent:
14929 The first form of the @command{kill} command succeeds if every @var{pid}
14930 argument specifies at least one process that the signal was sent to.
14932 The second form of the @command{kill} command lists signal information.
14933 Either the @option{-l} or @option{--list} option, or the @option{-t}
14934 or @option{--table} option must be specified. Without any
14935 @var{signal} argument, all supported signals are listed. The output
14936 of @option{-l} or @option{--list} is a list of the signal names, one
14937 per line; if @var{signal} is already a name, the signal number is
14938 printed instead. The output of @option{-t} or @option{--table} is a
14939 table of signal numbers, names, and descriptions. This form of the
14940 @command{kill} command succeeds if all @var{signal} arguments are valid
14941 and if there is no output error.
14943 The @command{kill} command also supports the @option{--help} and
14944 @option{--version} options. @xref{Common options}.
14946 A @var{signal} may be a signal name like @samp{HUP}, or a signal
14947 number like @samp{1}, or an exit status of a process terminated by the
14948 signal. A signal name can be given in canonical form or prefixed by
14949 @samp{SIG}. The case of the letters is ignored, except for the
14950 @option{-@var{signal}} option which must use upper case to avoid
14951 ambiguity with lower case option letters. For a list of supported
14952 signal names and numbers see @xref{Signal specifications}.
14957 @cindex delaying commands
14958 @cindex commands for delaying
14960 @c Perhaps @command{wait} or other commands should be described here also?
14963 * sleep invocation:: Delay for a specified time.
14967 @node sleep invocation
14968 @section @command{sleep}: Delay for a specified time
14971 @cindex delay for a specified time
14973 @command{sleep} pauses for an amount of time specified by the sum of
14974 the values of the command line arguments.
14978 sleep @var{number}[smhd]@dots{}
14982 Each argument is a number followed by an optional unit; the default
14983 is seconds. The units are:
14996 Historical implementations of @command{sleep} have required that
14997 @var{number} be an integer, and only accepted a single argument
14998 without a suffix. However, GNU @command{sleep} accepts
14999 arbitrary floating point numbers (using a period before any fractional
15002 The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}. @xref{Common
15005 @c sleep is a shell built-in at least with Solaris 11's /bin/sh
15006 @mayConflictWithShellBuiltIn{sleep}
15011 @node Numeric operations
15012 @chapter Numeric operations
15014 @cindex numeric operations
15015 These programs do numerically-related operations.
15018 * factor invocation:: Show factors of numbers.
15019 * seq invocation:: Print sequences of numbers.
15023 @node factor invocation
15024 @section @command{factor}: Print prime factors
15027 @cindex prime factors
15029 @command{factor} prints prime factors. Synopses:
15032 factor [@var{number}]@dots{}
15033 factor @var{option}
15036 If no @var{number} is specified on the command line, @command{factor} reads
15037 numbers from standard input, delimited by newlines, tabs, or spaces.
15039 The @command{factor} command supports only a small number of options:
15043 Print a short help on standard output, then exit without further
15047 Print the program version on standard output, then exit without further
15051 Factoring the product of the eighth and ninth Mersenne primes
15052 takes about 30 milliseconds of CPU time on a 2.2 GHz Athlon.
15055 M8=`echo 2^31-1|bc` ; M9=`echo 2^61-1|bc`
15056 /usr/bin/time -f '%U' factor $(echo "$M8 * $M9" | bc)
15057 4951760154835678088235319297: 2147483647 2305843009213693951
15061 Similarly, factoring the eighth Fermat number @math{2^{256}+1} takes
15062 about 20 seconds on the same machine.
15064 Factoring large prime numbers is, in general, hard. The Pollard Rho
15065 algorithm used by @command{factor} is particularly effective for
15066 numbers with relatively small factors. If you wish to factor large
15067 numbers which do not have small factors (for example, numbers which
15068 are the product of two large primes), other methods are far better.
15070 If @command{factor} is built without using GNU MP, only
15071 single-precision arithmetic is available, and so large numbers
15072 (typically @math{2^{64}} and above) will not be supported. The single-precision
15073 code uses an algorithm which is designed for factoring smaller
15079 @node seq invocation
15080 @section @command{seq}: Print numeric sequences
15083 @cindex numeric sequences
15084 @cindex sequence of numbers
15086 @command{seq} prints a sequence of numbers to standard output. Synopses:
15089 seq [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{last}
15090 seq [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{first} @var{last}
15091 seq [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{first} @var{increment} @var{last}
15094 @command{seq} prints the numbers from @var{first} to @var{last} by
15095 @var{increment}. By default, each number is printed on a separate line.
15096 When @var{increment} is not specified, it defaults to @samp{1},
15097 even when @var{first} is larger than @var{last}.
15098 @var{first} also defaults to @samp{1}. So @code{seq 1} prints
15099 @samp{1}, but @code{seq 0} and @code{seq 10 5} produce no output.
15100 Floating-point numbers
15101 may be specified (using a period before any fractional digits).
15103 The program accepts the following options. Also see @ref{Common options}.
15104 Options must precede operands.
15107 @item -f @var{format}
15108 @itemx --format=@var{format}
15109 @opindex -f @var{format}
15110 @opindex --format=@var{format}
15111 @cindex formatting of numbers in @command{seq}
15112 Print all numbers using @var{format}.
15113 @var{format} must contain exactly one of the @samp{printf}-style
15114 floating point conversion specifications @samp{%a}, @samp{%e},
15115 @samp{%f}, @samp{%g}, @samp{%A}, @samp{%E}, @samp{%F}, @samp{%G}.
15116 The @samp{%} may be followed by zero or more flags taken from the set
15117 @samp{-+#0 '}, then an optional width containing one or more digits,
15118 then an optional precision consisting of a @samp{.} followed by zero
15119 or more digits. @var{format} may also contain any number of @samp{%%}
15120 conversion specifications. All conversion specifications have the
15121 same meaning as with @samp{printf}.
15123 The default format is derived from @var{first}, @var{step}, and
15124 @var{last}. If these all use a fixed point decimal representation,
15125 the default format is @samp{%.@var{p}f}, where @var{p} is the minimum
15126 precision that can represent the output numbers exactly. Otherwise,
15127 the default format is @samp{%g}.
15129 @item -s @var{string}
15130 @itemx --separator=@var{string}
15131 @cindex separator for numbers in @command{seq}
15132 Separate numbers with @var{string}; default is a newline.
15133 The output always terminates with a newline.
15136 @itemx --equal-width
15137 Print all numbers with the same width, by padding with leading zeros.
15138 @var{first}, @var{step}, and @var{last} should all use a fixed point
15139 decimal representation.
15140 (To have other kinds of padding, use @option{--format}).
15144 You can get finer-grained control over output with @option{-f}:
15147 $ seq -f '(%9.2E)' -9e5 1.1e6 1.3e6
15153 If you want hexadecimal integer output, you can use @command{printf}
15154 to perform the conversion:
15157 $ printf '%x\n' `seq 1048575 1024 1050623`
15163 For very long lists of numbers, use xargs to avoid
15164 system limitations on the length of an argument list:
15167 $ seq 1000000 | xargs printf '%x\n' | tail -n 3
15173 To generate octal output, use the printf @code{%o} format instead
15176 On most systems, seq can produce whole-number output for values up to
15177 at least @math{2^{53}}. Larger integers are approximated. The details
15178 differ depending on your floating-point implementation, but a common
15179 case is that @command{seq} works with integers through @math{2^{64}},
15180 and larger integers may not be numerically correct:
15183 $ seq 18446744073709551616 1 18446744073709551618
15184 18446744073709551616
15185 18446744073709551616
15186 18446744073709551618
15189 Be careful when using @command{seq} with outlandish values: otherwise
15190 you may see surprising results, as @command{seq} uses floating point
15191 internally. For example, on the x86 platform, where the internal
15192 representation uses a 64-bit fraction, the command:
15195 seq 1 0.0000000000000000001 1.0000000000000000009
15198 outputs 1.0000000000000000007 twice and skips 1.0000000000000000008.
15203 @node File permissions
15204 @chapter File permissions
15207 @include getdate.texi
15211 @node Opening the software toolbox
15212 @chapter Opening the Software Toolbox
15214 An earlier version of this chapter appeared in
15215 @uref{http://www.linuxjournal.com/article.php?sid=2762, the
15216 @cite{What's GNU?} column of @cite{Linux Journal}, 2 (June, 1994)}.
15217 It was written by Arnold Robbins.
15220 * Toolbox introduction:: Toolbox introduction
15221 * I/O redirection:: I/O redirection
15222 * The who command:: The @command{who} command
15223 * The cut command:: The @command{cut} command
15224 * The sort command:: The @command{sort} command
15225 * The uniq command:: The @command{uniq} command
15226 * Putting the tools together:: Putting the tools together
15230 @node Toolbox introduction
15231 @unnumberedsec Toolbox Introduction
15233 This month's column is only peripherally related to the GNU Project, in
15234 that it describes a number of the GNU tools on your GNU/Linux system and how they
15235 might be used. What it's really about is the ``Software Tools'' philosophy
15236 of program development and usage.
15238 The software tools philosophy was an important and integral concept
15239 in the initial design and development of Unix (of which Linux and GNU are
15240 essentially clones). Unfortunately, in the modern day press of
15241 Internetworking and flashy GUIs, it seems to have fallen by the
15242 wayside. This is a shame, since it provides a powerful mental model
15243 for solving many kinds of problems.
15245 Many people carry a Swiss Army knife around in their pants pockets (or
15246 purse). A Swiss Army knife is a handy tool to have: it has several knife
15247 blades, a screwdriver, tweezers, toothpick, nail file, corkscrew, and perhaps
15248 a number of other things on it. For the everyday, small miscellaneous jobs
15249 where you need a simple, general purpose tool, it's just the thing.
15251 On the other hand, an experienced carpenter doesn't build a house using
15252 a Swiss Army knife. Instead, he has a toolbox chock full of specialized
15253 tools---a saw, a hammer, a screwdriver, a plane, and so on. And he knows
15254 exactly when and where to use each tool; you won't catch him hammering nails
15255 with the handle of his screwdriver.
15257 The Unix developers at Bell Labs were all professional programmers and trained
15258 computer scientists. They had found that while a one-size-fits-all program
15259 might appeal to a user because there's only one program to use, in practice
15264 difficult to write,
15267 difficult to maintain and
15271 difficult to extend to meet new situations.
15274 Instead, they felt that programs should be specialized tools. In short, each
15275 program ``should do one thing well.'' No more and no less. Such programs are
15276 simpler to design, write, and get right---they only do one thing.
15278 Furthermore, they found that with the right machinery for hooking programs
15279 together, that the whole was greater than the sum of the parts. By combining
15280 several special purpose programs, you could accomplish a specific task
15281 that none of the programs was designed for, and accomplish it much more
15282 quickly and easily than if you had to write a special purpose program.
15283 We will see some (classic) examples of this further on in the column.
15284 (An important additional point was that, if necessary, take a detour
15285 and build any software tools you may need first, if you don't already
15286 have something appropriate in the toolbox.)
15288 @node I/O redirection
15289 @unnumberedsec I/O Redirection
15291 Hopefully, you are familiar with the basics of I/O redirection in the
15292 shell, in particular the concepts of ``standard input,'' ``standard output,''
15293 and ``standard error''. Briefly, ``standard input'' is a data source, where
15294 data comes from. A program should not need to either know or care if the
15295 data source is a disk file, a keyboard, a magnetic tape, or even a punched
15296 card reader. Similarly, ``standard output'' is a data sink, where data goes
15297 to. The program should neither know nor care where this might be.
15298 Programs that only read their standard input, do something to the data,
15299 and then send it on, are called @dfn{filters}, by analogy to filters in a
15302 With the Unix shell, it's very easy to set up data pipelines:
15305 program_to_create_data | filter1 | ... | filterN > final.pretty.data
15308 We start out by creating the raw data; each filter applies some successive
15309 transformation to the data, until by the time it comes out of the pipeline,
15310 it is in the desired form.
15312 This is fine and good for standard input and standard output. Where does the
15313 standard error come in to play? Well, think about @command{filter1} in
15314 the pipeline above. What happens if it encounters an error in the data it
15315 sees? If it writes an error message to standard output, it will just
15316 disappear down the pipeline into @command{filter2}'s input, and the
15317 user will probably never see it. So programs need a place where they can send
15318 error messages so that the user will notice them. This is standard error,
15319 and it is usually connected to your console or window, even if you have
15320 redirected standard output of your program away from your screen.
15322 For filter programs to work together, the format of the data has to be
15323 agreed upon. The most straightforward and easiest format to use is simply
15324 lines of text. Unix data files are generally just streams of bytes, with
15325 lines delimited by the @acronym{ASCII} @sc{lf} (Line Feed) character,
15326 conventionally called a ``newline'' in the Unix literature. (This is
15327 @code{'\n'} if you're a C programmer.) This is the format used by all
15328 the traditional filtering programs. (Many earlier operating systems
15329 had elaborate facilities and special purpose programs for managing
15330 binary data. Unix has always shied away from such things, under the
15331 philosophy that it's easiest to simply be able to view and edit your
15332 data with a text editor.)
15334 OK, enough introduction. Let's take a look at some of the tools, and then
15335 we'll see how to hook them together in interesting ways. In the following
15336 discussion, we will only present those command line options that interest
15337 us. As you should always do, double check your system documentation
15338 for the full story.
15340 @node The who command
15341 @unnumberedsec The @command{who} Command
15343 The first program is the @command{who} command. By itself, it generates a
15344 list of the users who are currently logged in. Although I'm writing
15345 this on a single-user system, we'll pretend that several people are
15350 @print{} arnold console Jan 22 19:57
15351 @print{} miriam ttyp0 Jan 23 14:19(:0.0)
15352 @print{} bill ttyp1 Jan 21 09:32(:0.0)
15353 @print{} arnold ttyp2 Jan 23 20:48(:0.0)
15356 Here, the @samp{$} is the usual shell prompt, at which I typed @samp{who}.
15357 There are three people logged in, and I am logged in twice. On traditional
15358 Unix systems, user names are never more than eight characters long. This
15359 little bit of trivia will be useful later. The output of @command{who} is nice,
15360 but the data is not all that exciting.
15362 @node The cut command
15363 @unnumberedsec The @command{cut} Command
15365 The next program we'll look at is the @command{cut} command. This program
15366 cuts out columns or fields of input data. For example, we can tell it
15367 to print just the login name and full name from the @file{/etc/passwd}
15368 file. The @file{/etc/passwd} file has seven fields, separated by
15372 arnold:xyzzy:2076:10:Arnold D. Robbins:/home/arnold:/bin/bash
15375 To get the first and fifth fields, we would use @command{cut} like this:
15378 $ cut -d: -f1,5 /etc/passwd
15379 @print{} root:Operator
15381 @print{} arnold:Arnold D. Robbins
15382 @print{} miriam:Miriam A. Robbins
15386 With the @option{-c} option, @command{cut} will cut out specific characters
15387 (i.e., columns) in the input lines. This is useful for input data
15388 that has fixed width fields, and does not have a field separator. For
15389 example, list the Monday dates for the current month:
15391 @c Is using cal ok? Looked at gcal, but I don't like it.
15402 @node The sort command
15403 @unnumberedsec The @command{sort} Command
15405 Next we'll look at the @command{sort} command. This is one of the most
15406 powerful commands on a Unix-style system; one that you will often find
15407 yourself using when setting up fancy data plumbing.
15410 command reads and sorts each file named on the command line. It then
15411 merges the sorted data and writes it to standard output. It will read
15412 standard input if no files are given on the command line (thus
15413 making it into a filter). The sort is based on the character collating
15414 sequence or based on user-supplied ordering criteria.
15417 @node The uniq command
15418 @unnumberedsec The @command{uniq} Command
15420 Finally (at least for now), we'll look at the @command{uniq} program. When
15421 sorting data, you will often end up with duplicate lines, lines that
15422 are identical. Usually, all you need is one instance of each line.
15423 This is where @command{uniq} comes in. The @command{uniq} program reads its
15424 standard input. It prints only one
15425 copy of each repeated line. It does have several options. Later on,
15426 we'll use the @option{-c} option, which prints each unique line, preceded
15427 by a count of the number of times that line occurred in the input.
15430 @node Putting the tools together
15431 @unnumberedsec Putting the Tools Together
15433 Now, let's suppose this is a large ISP server system with dozens of users
15434 logged in. The management wants the system administrator to write a program that will
15435 generate a sorted list of logged in users. Furthermore, even if a user
15436 is logged in multiple times, his or her name should only show up in the
15439 The administrator could sit down with the system documentation and write a C
15440 program that did this. It would take perhaps a couple of hundred lines
15441 of code and about two hours to write it, test it, and debug it.
15442 However, knowing the software toolbox, the administrator can instead start out
15443 by generating just a list of logged on users:
15453 Next, sort the list:
15456 $ who | cut -c1-8 | sort
15463 Finally, run the sorted list through @command{uniq}, to weed out duplicates:
15466 $ who | cut -c1-8 | sort | uniq
15472 The @command{sort} command actually has a @option{-u} option that does what
15473 @command{uniq} does. However, @command{uniq} has other uses for which one
15474 cannot substitute @samp{sort -u}.
15476 The administrator puts this pipeline into a shell script, and makes it available for
15477 all the users on the system (@samp{#} is the system administrator,
15478 or @code{root}, prompt):
15481 # cat > /usr/local/bin/listusers
15482 who | cut -c1-8 | sort | uniq
15484 # chmod +x /usr/local/bin/listusers
15487 There are four major points to note here. First, with just four
15488 programs, on one command line, the administrator was able to save about two
15489 hours worth of work. Furthermore, the shell pipeline is just about as
15490 efficient as the C program would be, and it is much more efficient in
15491 terms of programmer time. People time is much more expensive than
15492 computer time, and in our modern ``there's never enough time to do
15493 everything'' society, saving two hours of programmer time is no mean
15496 Second, it is also important to emphasize that with the
15497 @emph{combination} of the tools, it is possible to do a special
15498 purpose job never imagined by the authors of the individual programs.
15500 Third, it is also valuable to build up your pipeline in stages, as we did here.
15501 This allows you to view the data at each stage in the pipeline, which helps
15502 you acquire the confidence that you are indeed using these tools correctly.
15504 Finally, by bundling the pipeline in a shell script, other users can use
15505 your command, without having to remember the fancy plumbing you set up for
15506 them. In terms of how you run them, shell scripts and compiled programs are
15509 After the previous warm-up exercise, we'll look at two additional, more
15510 complicated pipelines. For them, we need to introduce two more tools.
15512 The first is the @command{tr} command, which stands for ``transliterate.''
15513 The @command{tr} command works on a character-by-character basis, changing
15514 characters. Normally it is used for things like mapping upper case to
15518 $ echo ThIs ExAmPlE HaS MIXED case! | tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]'
15519 @print{} this example has mixed case!
15522 There are several options of interest:
15526 work on the complement of the listed characters, i.e.,
15527 operations apply to characters not in the given set
15530 delete characters in the first set from the output
15533 squeeze repeated characters in the output into just one character.
15536 We will be using all three options in a moment.
15538 The other command we'll look at is @command{comm}. The @command{comm}
15539 command takes two sorted input files as input data, and prints out the
15540 files' lines in three columns. The output columns are the data lines
15541 unique to the first file, the data lines unique to the second file, and
15542 the data lines that are common to both. The @option{-1}, @option{-2}, and
15543 @option{-3} command line options @emph{omit} the respective columns. (This is
15544 non-intuitive and takes a little getting used to.) For example:
15566 The file name @file{-} tells @command{comm} to read standard input
15567 instead of a regular file.
15569 Now we're ready to build a fancy pipeline. The first application is a word
15570 frequency counter. This helps an author determine if he or she is over-using
15573 The first step is to change the case of all the letters in our input file
15574 to one case. ``The'' and ``the'' are the same word when doing counting.
15577 $ tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' < whats.gnu | ...
15580 The next step is to get rid of punctuation. Quoted words and unquoted words
15581 should be treated identically; it's easiest to just get the punctuation out of
15585 $ tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[:alnum:]_ \n' | ...
15588 The second @command{tr} command operates on the complement of the listed
15589 characters, which are all the letters, the digits, the underscore, and
15590 the blank. The @samp{\n} represents the newline character; it has to
15591 be left alone. (The @acronym{ASCII} tab character should also be included for
15592 good measure in a production script.)
15594 At this point, we have data consisting of words separated by blank space.
15595 The words only contain alphanumeric characters (and the underscore). The
15596 next step is break the data apart so that we have one word per line. This
15597 makes the counting operation much easier, as we will see shortly.
15600 $ tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[:alnum:]_ \n' |
15601 > tr -s ' ' '\n' | ...
15604 This command turns blanks into newlines. The @option{-s} option squeezes
15605 multiple newline characters in the output into just one. This helps us
15606 avoid blank lines. (The @samp{>} is the shell's ``secondary prompt.''
15607 This is what the shell prints when it notices you haven't finished
15608 typing in all of a command.)
15610 We now have data consisting of one word per line, no punctuation, all one
15611 case. We're ready to count each word:
15614 $ tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[:alnum:]_ \n' |
15615 > tr -s ' ' '\n' | sort | uniq -c | ...
15618 At this point, the data might look something like this:
15631 The output is sorted by word, not by count! What we want is the most
15632 frequently used words first. Fortunately, this is easy to accomplish,
15633 with the help of two more @command{sort} options:
15637 do a numeric sort, not a textual one
15640 reverse the order of the sort
15643 The final pipeline looks like this:
15646 $ tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[:alnum:]_ \n' |
15647 > tr -s ' ' '\n' | sort | uniq -c | sort -n -r
15656 Whew! That's a lot to digest. Yet, the same principles apply. With six
15657 commands, on two lines (really one long one split for convenience), we've
15658 created a program that does something interesting and useful, in much
15659 less time than we could have written a C program to do the same thing.
15661 A minor modification to the above pipeline can give us a simple spelling
15662 checker! To determine if you've spelled a word correctly, all you have to
15663 do is look it up in a dictionary. If it is not there, then chances are
15664 that your spelling is incorrect. So, we need a dictionary.
15665 The conventional location for a dictionary is @file{/usr/dict/words}.
15666 On my GNU/Linux system,@footnote{Redhat Linux 6.1, for the November 2000
15667 revision of this article.}
15668 this is a sorted, 45,402 word dictionary.
15670 Now, how to compare our file with the dictionary? As before, we generate
15671 a sorted list of words, one per line:
15674 $ tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[:alnum:]_ \n' |
15675 > tr -s ' ' '\n' | sort -u | ...
15678 Now, all we need is a list of words that are @emph{not} in the
15679 dictionary. Here is where the @command{comm} command comes in.
15682 $ tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[:alnum:]_ \n' |
15683 > tr -s ' ' '\n' | sort -u |
15684 > comm -23 - /usr/dict/words
15687 The @option{-2} and @option{-3} options eliminate lines that are only in the
15688 dictionary (the second file), and lines that are in both files. Lines
15689 only in the first file (standard input, our stream of words), are
15690 words that are not in the dictionary. These are likely candidates for
15691 spelling errors. This pipeline was the first cut at a production
15692 spelling checker on Unix.
15694 There are some other tools that deserve brief mention.
15698 search files for text that matches a regular expression
15701 count lines, words, characters
15704 a T-fitting for data pipes, copies data to files and to standard output
15707 the stream editor, an advanced tool
15710 a data manipulation language, another advanced tool
15713 The software tools philosophy also espoused the following bit of
15714 advice: ``Let someone else do the hard part.'' This means, take
15715 something that gives you most of what you need, and then massage it the
15716 rest of the way until it's in the form that you want.
15722 Each program should do one thing well. No more, no less.
15725 Combining programs with appropriate plumbing leads to results where
15726 the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. It also leads to novel
15727 uses of programs that the authors might never have imagined.
15730 Programs should never print extraneous header or trailer data, since these
15731 could get sent on down a pipeline. (A point we didn't mention earlier.)
15734 Let someone else do the hard part.
15737 Know your toolbox! Use each program appropriately. If you don't have an
15738 appropriate tool, build one.
15741 As of this writing, all the programs we've discussed are available via
15742 anonymous @command{ftp} from: @*
15743 @uref{ftp://gnudist.gnu.org/textutils/textutils-1.22.tar.gz}. (There may
15744 be more recent versions available now.)
15746 None of what I have presented in this column is new. The Software Tools
15747 philosophy was first introduced in the book @cite{Software Tools}, by
15748 Brian Kernighan and P.J. Plauger (Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-03669-X).
15749 This book showed how to write and use software tools. It was written in
15750 1976, using a preprocessor for FORTRAN named @command{ratfor} (RATional
15751 FORtran). At the time, C was not as ubiquitous as it is now; FORTRAN
15752 was. The last chapter presented a @command{ratfor} to FORTRAN
15753 processor, written in @command{ratfor}. @command{ratfor} looks an awful
15754 lot like C; if you know C, you won't have any problem following the
15757 In 1981, the book was updated and made available as @cite{Software Tools
15758 in Pascal} (Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-10342-7). Both books are
15759 still in print and are well worth
15760 reading if you're a programmer. They certainly made a major change in
15761 how I view programming.
15763 The programs in both books are available from
15764 @uref{http://cm.bell-labs.com/who/bwk, Brian Kernighan's home page}.
15765 For a number of years, there was an active
15766 Software Tools Users Group, whose members had ported the original
15767 @command{ratfor} programs to essentially every computer system with a
15768 FORTRAN compiler. The popularity of the group waned in the middle 1980s
15769 as Unix began to spread beyond universities.
15771 With the current proliferation of GNU code and other clones of Unix programs,
15772 these programs now receive little attention; modern C versions are
15773 much more efficient and do more than these programs do. Nevertheless, as
15774 exposition of good programming style, and evangelism for a still-valuable
15775 philosophy, these books are unparalleled, and I recommend them highly.
15777 Acknowledgment: I would like to express my gratitude to Brian Kernighan
15778 of Bell Labs, the original Software Toolsmith, for reviewing this column.
15780 @node GNU Free Documentation License
15781 @appendix GNU Free Documentation License
15785 @node Concept index
15792 @c Local variables:
15793 @c texinfo-column-for-description: 32